Microscopic signs indicative of drowning are not specific to drowning but also to any other form of suffocation where mechanical obstruction is involved. Our study aimed to evaluate both macroscopic and microscopic findings across different groups sharing a common mechanism of death but differing causes and to compare the diatom test with pathohistological examination.
Twenty-nine adult Wistar rats, weighing within recommended ranges, were divided into four groups (L1–L4). The diatom test followed established guidelines for diatoms in water from the Bosna River. Microscopic examination revealed diatoms in the lungs of rats in L3 and L4 groups. Pathohistological findings showed varying degrees of changes including consolidation and inflammatory cell infiltration, dominated by lymphocytes and macrophages, with some samples also showing eosinophilic leukocytes.
Significant differences were observed between animals whose cause of death was mechanical asphyxia (suffocatio) and those that were submersed for1 hour versus those that were submersed for 72 hours after death. Diatoms identified in group L4 samples 3, 4, and 5 included Navicula sp. (U3 and U6) and Ulnaria ulna (U4).
Our findings suggest combining the diatom test with pathohistological analysis to support a drowning diagnosis. Further examination of other organs could enhance result reliability.
Allam, F. A. F. A., Ali, D. M. and Ali, S. F. E. (2022): Drowning versus postmortem submersion: biochemical and histopathological examination and estimation of postmortem intervals (an experimental study). Leg Med (Tokyo). 59:102138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.legalmed.2022.102138.
Anand, T. P. and Unmesh, A. K. (2016): Diatom test: a reliable tool to assess death by drowning? Int. J. Res. Med. Sci. 4, 1479–1484. https://doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20161214.
Armstrong, E. J. and Erskine, K. L. (2018): Investigation of drowning deaths: a practical review. Acad. Forensic. For. Pathol. 8(1), 8–43. https://doi.org/10.23907/2018.002.
Badu, I. K., Girela, E., Beltrán, C. M., Ruz-Caracuel, I. and Jimena, I. (2015): Diatoms in forensic analysis: a practical approach in rats. Med. Sci. Law 55(3), 228–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/0025802414538791.
Berger, S., Siekmeyer, M., Petzold-Quinque, S., Kiess, W. and Merkenschlager, A. (2024): Drowning and nonfatal drowning in children and adolescents: a subsequent retrospective data analysis. Children (Basel) 11(4), 439. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11040439.
Bortolotti, F., Del Balzo, G., Calza, R., Valerio, F. and Tagliaro, F. (2011): Testing the specificity of the diatom test: search for false-positives. Med. Sci. Law 51(1), S7–S10. https://doi.org/10.1258/msl.2010.010057.
Byard, R. W. and Summersides, G. (2011): Vitreous humor sodium levels in immersion deaths. J. Forensic Sci. 56, 643–644. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.01735.x.
Cantonati, M., Poikane, S., Pringle, C. M., Stevens, L. E., Turak, E., Heino, J., Richardson, J. S., Bolpagni, R., Borrini, A., Cid, N., et al. (2020): Characteristics, main impacts, and stewardship of natural and artificial freshwater environments: consequences for biodiversity conservation. Water 12(1), 260. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010260.
Dervišević, E., Katica, M., Mašić, E., Čamdžić, N., Ajanović, Z., Dervišević, L., Salihbegović, A. and Sarajlić, N. (2024): Bone and Tooth: substrates for determining Drowning: a new diagnostic procedure in forensic medicine Practice? Leg. Med. (Tokyo) 66, 102366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.legalmed.2023.102366.
Farrugia, A. and Ludes, B. (2011): Diagnostic of Drowning in Forensic Medicine, Forensic Medicine – From Old Problems to New Challenges. InTech. Available online at: https://www.intechopen.com/books/forensic-medicine-from-old-problems-tonew-challenges/diagnostic-of-drowning-inforensic-medicine. Accessed May 12, 2019.
Fucci, N., Campobasso, C. P., Mastrogiuseppe, L., Puccinelli, C., Marcheggiani, S., Mancini, L., et al. (2017): Diatoms in drowning cases in forensic veterinary context: a preliminary study. Int. J. Legal. Med. 131, 1573–1580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-017-1565-y.
Giambelluca, S., Ricci, F., Simonato, M., Vedovelli, L., Traldi, U., Correani, A., Casiraghi, C., Storti, M., Mersanne, A., Cogo, P., Salomone, F. and Carnielli, V. P. (2019): Tracing exogenous surfactant in vivo in rabbits by the natural variation of 13C. Respir. Res. 20(1), 158. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-019-1124-9.
Gour, J. K., Saini, R. K., Pathak, D. and Sharma, D. K. (2023): Analysis of the lung’s Histopathologic changes in a variety of acute asphyxia deaths at S.M.S Hospital in Jaipurr. Indian J. Forensic Med. Toxicol. 17(2), 69–73.
Ibrahim, M. A., Hagras, A. M., Khalifa, A. M., Ali, Z. A., Eid, G. A., Rehman, A. and Elserafy, O. S. (2022): Histopathological differentiation of drowning in freshwater and saltwater in rats: forensic point of view. Int. J. Morphol. 40(4), 1134–1146. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-95022022000401134.
Jalba, A. C., Wilkinson, M. H. F., Roerdink, J. B. T. M., et al. (2005): Automatic diatom identification using contour analysis by morphological curvature scale spaces. Mach. Vis. Appl. 16, 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00138-005-0175-8.
Khurshid, A., Shah, M. U., Khurshid, M., et al. (2021): Diatom-positive cadaver: drowning or homicide? Cureus 13(9), e18312. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.18312.
Layon, A. J. and Modell, J. H. (2009): Drowning: update 2009. Anesthesiology 110, 1390–1401. https://doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181a4c3b8.
Li, Z., Wu, B., Cheng, X., Wu, Y., Zhang, P., Shi, H., Zheng, D., Cheng, J., Liu, C. and Zhao, J. (2019): Evaluation of L/D ratio in a water-related case for the differentiation between drowning and postmortem immersion. Forensic. Sci. Int. Synerg. 1, 68–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2019.04.001.
Lucci, A., Campobasso, C. P., Cirnelli, A. and Lorenzini, G. (2008): A promising microbiological test for the diagnosis of drowning. Forensic Sci. Int. 182, 20–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.09.004.
Ludes, B., Coste, M., North, N., Doray, S., Tracqui, A. and Kintz, P. (1999): Diatom analysis in victim's tissues as an indicator of the site of drowning. Int. J. Legal. Med. 112(3), 163–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004140050224.
Lunetta, P., Miettinen, A., Spilling, K. and Sajantila, A. (2013): False-positive diatom test: a real challenge? A post-mortem study using standardized protocols. Leg. Med. (Tokyo) 15, 229–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.legalmed.2013.03.002.
McEwen, B. J. and Gerdin, J. (2016): Veterinary forensic pathology: drowning and bodies recovered from water. Vet. Path. 53, 1049–1056. https://doi.org/10.1177/0300985815625757.
Piegari, G., De Biase, D., d'Aquino, I., Prisco, F., Fico, R., Ilsami, R., Pozzato, N., Genovese, A. and Paciello, O. (2019): Diagnosis of drowning and the value of the diatom test in veterinary forensic pathology. Front. Vet. Sci. 14(6), 404. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2019.00404.
Piette, M. H. and De Letter, E. A. (2006): Drowning: still a difficult autopsy diagnosis. Forensic Sci. Int. 163, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.10.027.
Ren, L., Chen, Y. Q., Zhou, Q. L., Liu, Z. Z., Li, Y. and Liu, Q. (2021): Relationships between diatom abundances in rat organs and in environmental waters. Curr. Med. Sci. 41(5), 981–986. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11596-021-2443-x.
Schneppe, S., Dokter, M. and Bockholdt, B. (2021): Macromorphological findings in cases of death in water: a critical view on “drowning signs”. Int. J. Legal Med. 135(1), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-020-02469-9.
Shkrum, M. and Ramsay, D. (2007): Forensic Pathology of Trauma: Common Problems for the Pathologist. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ.
Van Beeck, E. F., Branche, C. M., Szpilman, D., Modell, J. H. and Bierens, J. J. (2005): A new definition of drowning: towards documentation and prevention of a global public health problem. World. Heal. Organ. 83, 853–856. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0042-96862005001100015.
Verma, K. (2013): Role of diatoms in the world of forensic sciences. J. Forensic Res. 4, 2–4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7145.1000181.
Yen, L. Y. and Jayaprakash, P. T. (2007): Prevalence of diatom frustules in non-vegetarian foodstuffs and its implications in interpreting identification of diatom frustules in drowning cases. Forensic. Sci. Int. 170, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.08.020.