Lotus root is a popular vegetable known for its nutritional value and unique taste. However, it can be susceptible to heavy metal contamination, which has raised concerns about its safety for consumption. This study aimed to analyse the extent of heavy metal contamination in lotus roots and assess the potential health risks associated with their consumption. The results showed that all measured heavy metal concentrations were below the maximum allowable limits, with contamination indices for all metals across nine provinces remaining below 1.0, classifying the lotus roots as “safe” for consumption. Non-carcinogenic risk assessment using the THQ showed values below 1.0 for all heavy metals in both adults and children, indicating negligible health risks. The HI was calculated as 0.107 for adults and 0.126 for children, with arsenic contributing significantly to these values at 47.76% for adults and 39.55% for children. The carcinogenic risk assessment revealed Carcinogenic Risk (CR) values of 8.37 × 10−8 for Pb, 2.04 × 10−5 for Cr, and 2.30 × 10−5 for As in adults, and 9.86 × 10−8 for Pb, 2.40 × 10−5 for Cr, and 2.71 × 10−5 for As in children. All CR values were within the acceptable range, indicating no apparent carcinogenic effects from lotus root consumption at current intake levels. However, it was noted that increased consumption could elevate risks associated with As, with limits of 174 and 93 g for adults and children, respectively, to maintain safety.
Aendo, P., Thongyuan, S., Songserm, T., and Tulayakul, P. (2019). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessment of heavy metals contamination in duck eggs and meat as a warning scenario in Thailand. Science of The Total Environment, 689: 215–222, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.414.
Budi, H.S., Catalan Opulencia, M.J., Afra, A., Abdelbasset, W.K., Abdullaev, D., Majdi, A., Taherian, M., Ekrami, H.A., and Mohammadi, M.J. (2022). Source, toxicity and carcinogenic health risk assessment of heavy metals. Reviews on Environmental Health, 39(1): 37–90, https://doi.org/doi:10.1515/reveh-2022-0096.
Bugyi, Z., Muskovics, G., and Tömösközi, S. (2023). Rethinking precautionary allergen labelling – threshold doses, risk assessment approaches and analytical implications. Acta Alimentaria, 52(3): 339–351, https://doi.org/10.1556/066.2023.00053.
Ferreira, S.L.C., Cerda, V., Cunha, F.A.S., Lemos, V.A., Teixeira, L.S.G., dos Santos, W.N.L., Coutinho, J.D.J., Porto, I.S.d.A., and de Jesus, R.F. (2023). Application of human health risk indices in assessing contamination from chemical elements in food samples. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 167: 117281, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2023.117281.
Hoeltgebaum, D., Pedron, T., Paniz, F.P., Souza, A.A., Romoli, J.C.Z., Lini, R.S., Pante, G.C., Rocha, G.H.O., Batista, B.L., and Machinski, Jr, M. (2021). Metals in Brazilian family farming grapes and estimated daily intake. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B, 14(3): 236–243, https://doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2021.1933612.
Isinkaralar, K., Isinkaralar, O., and Bayraktar, E.P. (2024a). Ecological and health risk assessment in road dust samples from various land use of Düzce city center: towards the sustainable urban development. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 235(1): 84, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-023-06879-4.
Isinkaralar, O., Isinkaralar, K., and Ambade, B. (2024b). Assessment of societal health risks: spatial distribution and potential hazards of toxic metals in street dust across diverse communities. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 235(5): 302, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-024-07104-6.
Istanbullu, S.N., Sevik, H., Isinkaralar, K., and Isinkaralar, O. (2023). Spatial distribution of heavy metal contamination in road dust samples from an urban environment in Samsun, Türkiye. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 110(4): 78, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-023-03720-w.
Jin, J., Zhao, X., Zhang, L., Hu, Y., Zhao, J., Tian, J., Ren, J., Lin, K., and Cui, C. (2023). Heavy metals in daily meals and food ingredients in the Yangtze River Delta and their probabilistic health risk assessment. Science of The Total Environment, 854: 158713, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158713.
Li, P., Huang, Y.-Y., Zeng, J., Lin, Z.-Z., and Huang, Z.-Y. (2020). Health risk assessment of heavy metals in shellfish collected from Fujian, China. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 26(3): 621–635, https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1528438.
Liu, Q.-L., Yi, Y., Wang, S.-Q., Wang, H.-X., Xu, W., Min, T., and Wang, L.-M. (2023). Non-enzymatic browning of lotus root during boiling. LWT – Food Science and Technology, 173: 114191, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.114191.
Lu, H.-F., Tan, Y.-W., Zhang, W.-S., Qiao, Y.-C., Campbell, D.E., Zhou, L., and Ren, H. (2017). Integrated emergy and economic evaluation of lotus-root production systems on reclaimed wetlands surrounding the Pearl River Estuary, China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 158: 367–379, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.016.
Luo, Y., Zhao, X., Xu, T., Liu, H., Li, X., Johnson, D., and Huang, Y. (2017). Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the lotus root of rural ponds in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 17(10): 2557–2565, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-017-1692-6.
Qian, C., Jiang, Y., Sun, Y., Yin, X., Zhang, M., Kan, J., Liu, J., Xiao, L., Jin, C., Qi, X., and Yang, W. (2023). Changes in the texture and flavor of lotus root after different cooking methods. Foods, 12(10): 2012, https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12102012.
Sarker, A., Kim, J.-E., Islam, A.R.M.T., Bilal, M., Rakib, M.R.J., Nandi, R., Rahman, M.M., and Islam, T. (2022). Heavy metals contamination and associated health risks in food webs—a review focuses on food safety and environmental sustainability in Bangladesh. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(3): 3230–3245, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17153-7.
Sawut, R., Kasim, N., Maihemuti, B., Hu, L., Abliz, A., Abdujappar, A., and Kurban, M. (2018). Pollution characteristics and health risk assessment of heavy metals in the vegetable bases of northwest China. Science of The Total Environment, 642: 864–878, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.034.
Sifou, A., Youssfi, M.E., Zinedine, A., Hazzat, M.E., Antonopoulos, A., Aakame, R.B., Mahnine, N., Arsalane, S., and Halim, M. (2023). Dietary intake and health risk assessment of lead and cadmium in green tea from Morocco. Journal of Consumer Protection and Food Safety, 18(2): 189–198, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00003-023-01422-3.
Su, K., Wang, Q., Li, L., Cao, R., and Xi, Y. (2022). Water quality assessment of Lugu Lake based on Nemerow pollution index method. Scientific Reports, 12(1): 13613, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-17874-w.
Xiong, C., Zhang, Y., Xu, X., Lu, Y., Ouyang, B., Ye, Z., and Li, H. (2013). Lotus roots accumulate heavy metals independently from soil in main production regions of China. Scientia Horticulturae, 164: 295–302, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2013.09.013.
Zang, Z., Li, Y., Liu, S., Li, H., Hao, Z., and Xu, Y. (2021). Assessment of the heavy metal pollution and health risks of rice cultivated in Hainan Island, China. Environmental Forensics, 22(1–2): 63–74, https://doi.org/10.1080/15275922.2020.1836081.
Zhou, L.-H., Huang, W.-H., Ma, L.-F., Jin, Y.-J., Li, M., Wang, W.-H., and Cao, X.-L. (2023). The discrimination of geographical origin of lotus root from major producing areas of China based on multi-elemental analysis combined with multivariate data analysis. Spectroscopy Letters, 56(9–10): 479–487, https://doi.org/10.1080/00387010.2023.2266012.
Zhu, Z.-P., Tong, Y.-P., Tang, W.-Y., Wu, Z.-X., and Wu, Z.-B. (2017). Distribution of As, Cd, and Pb in seafood in Southern China and their oral bioavailability in mice. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(4): 3572–3581, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-8095-x.