Legumes are not only known to hold many nutritional values, including minerals such as iron, but also to contain antinutrients that can inhibit mineral absorption. Fermentation and germination are deemed simple, accessible, and sustainable ways to improve the nutritional composition of legumes. This study aimed to investigate the effect of spontaneous fermentation and germination on the antinutrients and iron levels of several legumes, consisting of soybean, kidney bean, and mung bean. Each legume type underwent spontaneous fermentation through soaking for 72 h and germination for 72 h, followed by milling to obtain their flours. The results indicated that spontaneous fermentation and germination could effectively reduce all legumes' tannin and phytic acid contents. However, while spontaneous fermentation increased iron content in all legume types, germination decreased iron content in soybean and kidney bean flours. This study has revealed that spontaneous fermentation served as the most effective method to reduce antinutrients and enhance iron levels in legumes. Therefore, this study is expected to support the fulfilment of the body's iron needs through legume's simple processing methods, such as spontaneous fermentation.
Adebo, J.A., Njobeh, P.B., Gbashi, S., Oyedeji, A.B., Ogundele, O.M., Oyeyinka, S.A., and Adebo, O.A. (2022). Fermentation of cereals and legumes: impact on nutritional constituents and nutrient bioavailability. Fermentation, 8(2): 63.
Anaemene, D. and Fadupin, G. (2022). Anti-nutrient reduction and nutrient retention capacity of fermentation, germination and combined germination-fermentation in legume processing. Applied Food Research, 2(1): 100059.
Arshad, N., Akhtar, S., Ismail, T., Saeed, W., Qamar, M., Özogul, F., Bartkiene, E., and Rocha, J.M. (2023). The comparative effect of lactic acid fermentation and germination on the levels of neurotoxin, anti-nutrients, and nutritional attributes of sweet blue pea (Lathyrus sativus L.). Foods, 12(15): 2851, https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12152851.
Atudorei, D., Stroe, S.-G., and Codină, G.G. (2021). Impact of germination on the microstructural and physicochemical properties of different legume types. Plants, 10(3): 592.
Bektaş, M. and Ertop, M.H. (2021). Phytic acid content and in-vitro digestibility of several cereal and legume types treated with different processes. Ukrainian Food Journal, 10(3): 507–523.
Ems, T., Lucia, K.S., and Huecker, M.R. (2023). Biochemistry, iron absorption. In: StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island (FL), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448204/.
Grillet, L., Mari, S., and Schmidt, W. (2014). Iron in seeds – loading pathways and subcellular localization. Frontiers in Plant Science, 4: 535.
Gunathunga, C., Senanayake, S., Jayasinghe, M.A., Brennan, C.S., Truong, T., Marapana, U., and Chandrapala, J. (2024). Germination effects on nutritional quality: a comprehensive review of selected cereals and pulses changes. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 128: 106024.
Gupta, R.K., Gangoliya, S.S., and Singh, N.K. (2015). Reduction of phytic acid and enhancement of bioavailable micronutrients in food grains. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52(2): 676–684.
Knez, E., Kadac-Czapska, K., and Grembecka, M. (2023). Effect of fermentation on the nutritional quality of the selected vegetables and legumes and their health effects. Life, 13(3): 655.
Maldonado-Alvarado, P., Pavón-Vargas, D.J., Abarca-Robles, J., Valencia-Chamorro, S., and Haros, C.M. (2023). Effect of germination on the nutritional properties, phytic acid content, and phytase activity of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). Foods, 12(2): 389.
Mohammed, B.M., Mohamed Ahmed, I.A., Alshammari, G.M., Qasem, A.A., Yagoub, A.E.A., Ahmed, M.A., Abdo, A.A.A., and Yahya, M.A. (2023). The effect of germination and fermentation on the physicochemical, nutritional, and functional quality attributes of samh seeds. Foods, 12(22): 4133.
Mohan, V.R., Tresina, P.S., and Daffodil, E.D. (2016). Antinutritional factors in legume seeds: characteristics and determination. In: Caballero, B., Finglas, P., and Toldra, F. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of food and health. Elsevier, pp. 211–220.
Mutwiri, L.N., Kyallo, F., Kiage, B., Van der Schueren, B., and Matthys, C. (2020). Can improved legume varieties optimize iron status in low- and middle-income countries? A systematic review. Advances in Nutrition, 11(5): 1315–1324.
Nair, R., Ghakker, N., and Sharma, A. (2015). Spectrophotometric estimation of tannins in raw and processed form (paan masala) of areca nut. International Journal of Education and Science Research Review, 2(1): 51–56.
Natekar, P., Deshmukh, C., Limaye, D., Ramanathan, V., and Pawar, A. (2022). A micro review of a nutritional public health challenge: iron deficiency anemia in India. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health, 14(1): 100992.
Nkhata, S.G., Ayua, E., Kamau, E.H., and Shingiro, J. (2018). Fermentation and germination improve nutritional value of cereals and legumes through activation of endogenous enzymes. Food Science and Nutrition, 6(8): 2446–2458.
Nurhasanah, I. (2023). Analisis kadar zat besi (Fe) pada tepung kulit kentang (Analysis of iron (Fe) content in potato peel flour). Jurnal Ners, 7(2): 1005–1008.
Piskin, E., Cianciosi, D., Gulec, S., Tomas, M., and Capanoglu, E. (2022). Iron absorption: factors, limitations, and improvement methods. ACS Omega, 7(24): 20441–20456.
Ramli, N.A.M., Chen, Y.H., Zin, Z.M., Abdullah, M.A.A., Rusli, N.D., and Zainol, M.K. (2021). Effect of soaking time and fermentation on the nutrient and antinutrients composition of Canavalia ensiformis (Kacang Koro). IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 756(1): 012033.
Ribeiro, M.M.S., Viganó, J., Meireles, M.A.A., and Veggi, P.C. (2022). Recent advances in the recovery of tannins from natural matter. In: Atta-ur-Rahman, F.R.S. (Ed.), Studies in natural products chemistry, Vol. 75. Elsevier, pp. 289–328.
Rout, G.R. and Sahoo, S. (2015). Role of iron in plant growth and metabolism. Reviews in Agricultural Science, 3: 1–24.
Salim, R., Nehvi, I.B., Mir, R.A., Tyagi, A., Ali, S., and Bhat, O.M. (2023). A review on anti-nutritional factors: unraveling the natural gateways to human health. Frontiers in Nutrition, 10: 1215873.
Sari, P., Judistiani, R.T.D., Herawati, D.M.D., Dhamayanti, M., and Hilmanto, D. (2022). Iron deficiency anemia and associated factors among adolescent girls and women in a rural area of Jatinangor, Indonesia. International Journal of Women’s Health, 14: 1137–1147.
SNI. Standar Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian National Standard) 01-2891-1992 (1992). Cara Uji Makanan dan Minuman (How to test food and drink). Badan Standardisasi Nasional (BSN) (Indonesian National Standardization Agency).
Sudarmadji, S., Haryono, B., and Suhardi, S. (2010). Analisa bahan Makanan dan Pertanian (Food and agricultural material analysis). Jurnal Ilmiah Agribisnis dan Perikanan (Agrikan UMMU-Ternate), 4(2).