In this study, polyphenol-rich extracts obtained from apple peel waste, red pepper, and grape seed were encapsulated to solve the problems originating from chemical or physical stability and to determine the bioaccessibility of phenolics. The bioaccessibility of encapsulated phenolic extracts during simulated digestion in the gastrointestinal tract was investigated using two different static in vitro models. The obtained phenolic-loaded chitosan particles had encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) in the range of 81.72–89.93% and 42.38–69.28% in all samples, respectively. The bioaccessibilities of phenolics determined following in vitro digestion methods in all samples were significantly different (P < 0.05). Polyphenol-chitosan loaded particles showed higher bioaccessibilities in all samples.
Alminger, M., Aura, A.M., Bohn, T., Dufour, C., El, S.N., Gomes, A., Karakaya, S., Martínez-Cuesta, M.C., McDougall, G.J., Requena, T., and Santos, C.N. (2014). In vitro models for studying secondary plant metabolite digestion and bioaccessibility. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 13(4): 413–436.
Barbagallo, R.N., Chisari, M., and Patané, C. (2012). Polyphenol oxidase, total phenolics and ascorbic acid changes during storage of minimally processed “California Wonder” and “Quadrato d’Asti” sweet peppers. LWT – Food Science and Technology, 49(2): 192–196.
Baydar, N.G., Özkan, G., and Saǧdiç, O. (2004). Total phenolic contents and antibacterial activities of grape (Vitis vinifera L.) extracts. Food Control, 15(5): 335–339.
Bouayed, J., Hoffmann, L., and Bohn, T. (2011). Total phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins and antioxidant activity following simulated gastro-intestinal digestion and dialysis of apple varieties: bioaccessibility and potential uptake. Food Chemistry, 128(1): 14–21.
Cilek, B., Luca, A., Hasirci, V., Sahin, S., and Sumnu, G. (2012). Microencapsulation of phenolic compounds extracted from sour cherry pomace: effect of formulation, ultrasonication time and core to coating ratio. European Food Research and Technology, 235(4): 587–596.
Da Rosa, C.G., Borges, C.D., Kuhn Rutz, J., Rickes da Luz, S., Döring Krumreich, F., E Benvenutti, E.V.F., and Nunes, M.R. (2014). Encapsulation of the phenolic compounds of the blackberry (Rubus fruticosus). LWT – Food Science and Technology, 58(2): 527–533.
Deladino, L., Anbinder, P.S., Navarro, A.S., and Martino, M.N. (2008). Encapsulation of natural antioxidants extracted from Ilex paraguariensis. Carbohydrate Polymers, 71(1): 126–134.
Donsì, F., Sessa, M., Mediouni, H., Mgaidi, A., and Ferrari, G. (2011). Encapsulation of bioactive compounds in nanoemulsion-based delivery systems. Procedia Food Science, 1: 1666–1671.
Fang, Z. and Bhandari, B. (2010). Encapsulation of polyphenols – a review. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 21(10): 510–523.
Flores, F.P., Singh, R.K., Kerr, W.L., Phillips, D.R., and Kong, F. (2015). In vitro release properties of encapsulated blueberry (Vaccinium ashei) extracts. Food Chemistry, 168: 225–232.
Francini, A. and Sebastiani, L. (2013). Phenolic compounds in apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.): compounds characterization and stability during postharvest and after processing. Antioxidants, 2(3): 181–193.
Godevac, D., Teševic, V., Veličković, M., Vujisic, L., Vajs, V., and Milosavljević, S. (2010). Polyphenolic compounds in seeds from some grape cultivars grown in Serbia. Journal of the Serbian Chemical Society, 75(12): 1641–1652.
Kalinowska, M., Bielawska, A., Lewandowska-Siwkiewicz, H., Priebe, W., and Lewandowski, W. (2014). Apples: content of phenolic compounds vs. variety, part of apple and cultivation model, extraction of phenolic compounds, biological properties. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 84: 169–188.
Keawchaoon, L. and Yoksan, R. (2011). Preparation, characterization and in vitro release study of carvacrol-loaded chitosan nanoparticles. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 84(1): 163–171.
López de Lacey, A.M., Giménez, B., Pérez-Santín, E., Faulks, R., Mandalari, G., López-Caballero, M.E., and Montero, P. (2012). Bioaccessibility of green tea polyphenols incorporated into an edible agar film during simulated human digestion. Food Research International, 48(2): 462–469.
Marinova, D., Ribarova, F., and Atanassova, M (2005). Total phenolics and total flavonoids in Bulgarian fruits and vegetables. Journal of the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, 40(3): 255–260.
Martos, G., Contreras, P., Molina, E., and López-Fandiño, R. (2010). Egg white ovalbumin digestion mimicking physiological conditions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(9): 5640–5648.
Massias, A., Boisard, S., Baccaunaud, M., Leal Calderon, F., and Subra-Paternault, P. (2015). Recovery of phenolics from apple peels using CO2+ethanol extraction: kinetics and antioxidant activity of extracts. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 98: 172–182.
Minekus, M., Alminger, M., Alvito, P., Ballance, S., Bohn, T., Bourlieu, C., Carrière, F., Boutrou, R., Corredig, M., Dupont, D., Dufour, C., Egger, L., Golding, M., Karakaya, S., Kirkhus, B., Le Feunteun, S., Lesmes, U., Macierzanka, A., Mackie, A., Marze, S., McClements, D.J., Ménard, O., Recio, I., Santos, C.N., Singh, R.P., Vegarud, G.E., Wickham, M.S.J., Weitschies, W., and Brodkorb, A. (2014). A standardised static in vitro digestion method suitable for food - an international consensus. Food & Function, 5(6): 1113–1124.
Pastene, E., Speisky, H., Troncoso, M., Alarcón, J., and Figueroa, G. (2009). In vitro inhibitory effect of apple peel extract on the growth of Helicobacter pylori and respiratory burst induced on human neutrophils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 57(17): 7743–7749.
Rockenbach, I.I., Gonzaga, L.V., Rizelio, V.M., Gonçalves, A.E.D.S.S., Genovese, M.I., and Fett, R. (2011). Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of seed and skin extracts of red grape (Vitis vinifera and Vitis labrusca) pomace from Brazilian winemaking. Food Research International, 44(4): 897–901.
Singleton, V.L. and Rossi, J.R. (1965). Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 16: 144–158.