A fine-grained and a medium-grained oolitic limestone of Miocene age were studied on ashlars of monuments in Budapest. The studied buildings are located in a polluted urban environment. The surface alteration is characterized by the presence of white (thin and thick) and black (laminar and framboidal) weathering crusts. Flaking, scaling and blistering are common crust detachment forms. Crust detachment is followed by rapid surface loss in the form of granular disintegration or of secondary crusts stabilizing the stone surface. Non-destructive in situ mechanical tests such as Schmidt hammer rebound and Duroscope clearly document the presence of thin and thick weathering crusts, and the degradation of underlying fine-and medium-grained limestone. Crust formation is associated with a textural change, since precipitation of pore-occluding calcite and gypsum and reduction of porosity in the crust zone has been recorded. Crust detachment is attributed to the crystallization pressure of air pollution-related gypsum, to freeze/thaw cycles, and to differences in mechanical properties of crust and host rock.
G.G. Amoroso V. Fassina 1983 Stone decay and conservation Elsevier Amsterdam.
S.J. Antill H.A. Viles 1999 Deciphering the impacts of T√affic on stone decay in Oxford: Some preliminary observations from old limestone walls M.S. Jones R.D. Wakefield Aspects of Stone weathering, Decay and Conservation Imperial College Press London 28 42.
P. Ausset M. Del Monte R.A. Lèfevre 1999 Embryonic sulphated black crusts on carbonate rocks in atmospheric simulation chamber and in the field: role of carbonaceous fly-ash Atmospheric Environment 33 1525 1534.
F.G. Bell 1993 Durability of carbonate rock as a building stone with comments on its preservation Environmental Geology 21 187 200.
A. Bonazza C. Sabbioni N. Ghedini O. Favoni G. Zappia 2004 Carbon data in black crusts on European monuments C. Saiz-Jimenez Air pollution and cultural heritage Taylor and Francis Group London 39 47.
D. Camuffo 1995 Physical weathering of stone The Science of the Total Environment 167 1 14.
B. Christaras 1991 Durability of building stones and weathering of antiquities in Creta/Greece Bulletin of the International Association of Engineering Geology 44 17 25.
B. Christaras 1996 Non destructive methods for investigation of some mechanical properties of natural stones in the protection of monuments Bulletin of the International Association of Engineering Geology 54 59 63.
G. Cultrone C. Rodriguez-Navarro E. Sebastian 2004 Limestone and brick decay in simulated polluted atmosphere: the role of particulate matter C. Saiz-Jimenez Air pollution and cultural heritage Taylor and Francis Group London 141 145.
Fassina, V., M. Favaro, A. Naccari 2002: Principal decay patterns on Venetian Monuments. — In: Siegesmund, S., T. Weiss, A. Vollbrecht (eds): Natural stones, weathering phenomena, conservation strategies and case studies. — Geological Society, London Special Publication, 205, pp. 381–391.
B. Fitzner K. Heinrichs R. Kownatzki 1995 Weathering forms-classification and mapping R. Snethlage Denkmalpflege und Naturwissenschaft, Natursteinkonservierung I. Ernst and Sohn Berlin 41 88.
Fitzner B. , K. Heinrichs, D. La Bouchardiere 2002: Limestone weathering of historical monuments in Cairo, Egypt. — In: Siegesmund, S., T. Weiss, A. Vollbrecht (eds): Natural stones, weathering phenomena, conservation strategies and case studies. — Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 205, pp. 217–239.
G.M. Grossi R.M. Esbert F. Díaz-Pache F.J. Alonso 2003 Soiling of building stones in urban environments Building and Environment 38 147 159.
T.Y. Irfan W.R. Dearman 1978 Engineering classification and index properties of a weathered granite Bulletin of the International Association of Engineering Geology 17 79 90.
S. Kahraman 2001 Evaluation of simple methods for assessing the uniaxial compressive strength of rock International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 38 981 994.
A. Kieslinger 1949 Die Steine von Sankt Stephan Verlag Herold Wien.
Lefèvre, R.A., P. Ausset 2002: Atmospheric pollution and building materials: stone and glass. — In: Siegesmund, S., T. Weiss, A. Vollbrecht (eds): Natural stones, weathering phenomena, conservation strategies and case studies. — Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 205, pp. 329–345.
P. Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki G. Biscontin 1999 Origin, characteristics and morphology of weathering crusts on Istria stone in Venice Atmospheric Environment 33 1699 1709.
Z. Pápay Török 2006 The effect of silica-acid-ester stone consolidants on coarse limestone Építõanyag 58 4 102 106.
P. Primerano G. Marino S. Di Pasquale L. Mavilia F. Corigliano 2000 Possible alteration of monuments caused by particles emitted into the atmosphere carrying strong primary acidity Atmospheric Environment 34 3889 3896.
C. Rodriguez-Navarro E. Sebastian 1996 Role of particulate matter from vehicle exhaust on porous building stones (limestone) sulfation The Science of the Total Environment 187 79 91.
B.J. Smith 1996 Scale problems in interpretation of urban stone decay B.J. Smith P.A. Warke Processes of urban stone decay Donhead London 3 18.
B.J. Smith A.V. Turkington P.A. Warke P.A.M. Basheer J.J. McAlister J. Meenly J.M. Curran 2002 Modelling the rapid retreat of building sandstones. A case study from polluted maritime environment S. Siegesmund T. Weiss A. Vollbrecht Natural stones, weathering phenomena, conservation strategies and case studies Special Publications 205 Geological Society London 339 354.
B.J. Smith Török J.J. McAlister J. Megarry 2003 Observations on the factors influencing stability of building stones following contour scaling: a case study of the oolitic limestones from Budapest, Hungary Building and Environment 38 9–10 1173 1183.
B.J. Smith H. Viles 2006 Rapid catastrophic decay of building limestones: Thoughts on causes, effects and consequences R. Fort M. Alvarez de Buego M. Gomez-Heras C. Vazquez-Calvo Heritage weathering and conservation Taylor and Francis/Balkema London 191 197.
Smith, B.J., W.B. Whalley, R. Magee 1992: Assessment of building stone decay: a geomorphological approach. — In: Webster, R.G.M. (ed.): Stone cleaning and the nature and decay mechanism of stone. Proceedings of the International Conference, Edinburgh, Donhead, London, pp. 249–257.
M. Thornbush H. Viles 2004 Integrated digital photography and image processing for the quantification of colouration on soiled limestone surfaces in Oxford, England Journal of Cultural Heritage 5 285 290.
T. Topal B. Sözmen 2003 Deterioration mechanisms of tuffs in Midas monument Engineering Geology 68 3–4 201 223.
Török 2002 Oolitic limestone in polluted atmospheric environment in Budapest: weathering phenomena and alterations in physical properties S. Siegesmund T. Weiss A. Vollbrecht Natural stones, weathering phenomena, conservation strategies and case studies Special Publications 205 Geological Society London 363 379.
Török 2003 Surface strength and mineralogy of weathering crusts on limestone buildings in Budapest Building and Environment 38 9–10 1185 1192.
Török C. Müller A. Hüpers M. Hoppert S. Siegesmund T. Weiss 2007 Differences in texture, physical properties and microbiology of weathering crust and host rock: a case study of the porous limestone of Budapest (Hungary) R. Prykril J.B. Smith Building stone decay: from diagnosis to conservation Special Publications 271 Geological Society London 261 276.
Török N. Rozgonyi 2004 Mineralogy and morphology of salt crusts on porous limestone in urban environment Environmental Geology 46 3 323 339.
Török T. Vogt S. Löbens L.Z. Forgó S. Siegesmund T. Weiss 2005 Weathering forms of rhyolite tuffs Zeischrift der Deutshen Gesellscahft für Geowissenschaften 156 1 177 187.
Török T. Weiss A. Hüpers C. Müller S. Siegesmund 2004 The decay of oolitic limestones controlled by atmospheric pollution: a case study from the Parliament and Citadella in Budapest, Hungary D. Kwiatkowski R. Löfvendal Proceedings of the 10th International Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone ICOMOS Sweden Stockholm 947 954.
H.A. Viles 1993 The environmental sensitivity of blistering of limestones walls in Oxford, England: a preliminary study D.S.G. Thomas R.J. Allison Landscape sensitivity John Wiley Chichester 309 326.
G. Zappia C. Sabbioni C. Riontino G. Gobbi O. Favoni 1998 Exposure tests of building materials in urban atmosphere The Science of the Total Environment 224 235 244.