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Abstract

The paper aims to clarify connections among the terms designated in the title on the basis of a well-known passage of the Aristotelian corpus (Politics I 2. 1253a7–18). The first part of the argumentation unfolds mainly through conceptual explanations and conceptual distinctions, during which some relevant claims of Aristotleʼs other works (primarily the biological and logical writings) are also taken into consideration. The main question of this part is directed to the difference between man and other living beings. The difference, as it will appear, lies in the specific performance of human speech (logos), contrasted with the performance of the animal voice (phōnē). In the second part, the reconstruction of Aristotelian theory based on close textual reading is complemented by references to some later but theoretically insightful contexts, especially with regard to the field of politics in the narrower sense. Conceptions of social constructivism (Berger and Luckmann), philosophical anthropology (Gehlen), political philosophy (Arendt), and philosophical hermeneutics (Heidegger and Gadamer) will primarily come into play.

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Abstract

The present paper addresses the fragmented history of Hungarian legal anthropology. Although legal anthropology does not have a centuries-long tradition in Hungarian legal scholarship, the activities and publications of the late Ernő Tárkány Szücs, along with those of Sándor Loss and István H. Szilágyi, can be said to have established the scholarly framework for an anthropological understanding of law in Hungary. While not explicitly, all three authors relied on the folk concept of law and contributed to the introduction of a cultural aspect to the study of legal issues. The first part of the present paper discusses the work of the late Tárkány Szücs, the leading personality in the Hungarian legal ethnology movement after 1945, with a particular focus on how the author conceived the research of socialist legal folkways. Although Tárkány Szücs's frame of reference was legal ethnology, it can be argued that his insights into socialist legal folkways brought him close to an anthropological perspective. The second part of the paper presents in detail the research carried out by legal anthropologists in the 1990s, focusing on the work on Romani law carried out by István H. Szilágyi and Sándor Loss. It should be stressed that in this latter research, the methodology of participant observation was applied, thus expanding the toolkit of Hungarian legal scholarship to some extent. In conclusion, the paper argues that a proper understanding of everyday legal practice — including trouble-free cases — is impossible unless legal scholarship is liberated from the constraints of the analytical concept of law and exploits the freedom offered by the folk concept. The reinterpretation and revitalization of the broadly understood legal anthropological tradition — from the late Tárkány Szücs to H. Szilágyi and Loss — can be of significant help in this respect.

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Az Inana és Šukaletuda című mítosz •

Áldás vagy átok a hírnév?

Antik Tanulmányok
Author:
Anna Krisztina Pintér

Az alábbi tanulmány a sumer Inana és Šukaletuda mítosz új magyar fordítását tartalmazza, illetve egy elemzést a szöveg egyik problematikus részéről, Šukaletuda „megáldásáról”. Az elemzésben amellett érvelek, hogy a szöveg szóhasználata arra vonatkozó utalásokat rejt, hogy Šukaletuda, a kertész, alacsony származású, uralkodói szerepkörök betöltésére alkalmatlan személy, és az uralkodókat utánzó, jogtalan tette után kap isteni büntetést. A mítoszról szóló eddigi elemzések a szöveg ezen aspektusára még nem tértek ki.

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Propertius II. 15. elégiájának fordítása az Erato latin ciklusának közepén (Ovidius Amores I. 5. elégiájával szimmetrikus párban) hangsúlyos szerepet tölt be Babits fordításkötetében. Ennek a Proper-tius-fordításnak ez az első és egyetlen megjelenése Babits életművében, de a klasszikus szerzőhöz való viszonya nem előzmény nélküli. Babits levelezésében és irodalomtörténeti munkáiban is előkerül Propertius neve, de mindezeken túl latintanári pályafutása során is foglalkozhatott verseivel. Ez a dolgozat elsősorban arra a kérdésre keres választ, hogy a fordításhoz Babits milyen szövegforrást használhatott, illetve hogy a Babitsra sajátosan jellemző fordítói paradigma jelei, a költői invenciók mutathatnak-e összefüggéseket a szövegforrások vagy Babits más fordításai között.

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Abstract

In Hungarian settlements, tizedek (tenths), streets, divisions, and fertályok (viertels, quarters, or districts) were areas that enjoyed a certain autonomy. They were led by elected “decurions,” “street captains,” or “captains” in Hungarian-populated settlements, and by viertelmeisters, or district wardens, in German-speaking settlements. These officials liaised between the municipal authorities and the local community. From the 16th century until the mid-19th century, the decurions and district wardens had official powers, kept the population informed about national and local regulations, helped carry out local censuses, collected taxes, and organized public works. They played a key role in maintaining law and order in their neighborhoods, and in ensuring protection from fire. In the northeastern region of present-day Hungary, we have information concerning the history of the district wardens in the cities of Eger, Gyöngyös, and Miskolc, while in the case of Eger the tradition is still in existence today. There were decurions in Eger as early as the end of the 17th century, who were replaced by district wardens from the 1710s. The position existed in Gyöngyös from the middle of the 18th century until 1874. In Miskolc, there were district wardens from 1794 to 1800. After a hiatus of half a century, the position was then restored, while in 1884 the parallel position of “section warden” was abolished. In Eger, district wardens were active until 1949, then, after a forced interruption in the Socialist era, the institution was revived in 1996, becoming an important element in local identity through its heritage preservation activities. The present study introduces the different eras in the institution of the district warden, its changing functions, its organizational structure, its symbols, and its various forms of social interaction. Eger is the only city in Hungary in which this centuries-old office is still preserved today, justifying the inclusion of this living custom in the UNESCO National Inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2014.

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A XVI. század elején tizenkét kéz által másolt Codex Monacensis Graecus 307a jelzetű kézirat Laonikos Chalkokondylés történeti munkáját tartalmazza. A kézirat a főszövegen kívül több széljegyzetet is megőrzött. Chalkokondylés Apodeixise után, a kódex 237v oldalán található egy Nikolaos Sophianos által írt bejegyzés, amelyben a szerző különböző módszereket ír le a bolhák és poloskák ellen. Bár Darkó Jenő korábban már kiadta a receptet, az átírása pontatlan és számos helyen hibás. Jelen tanulmány célja, hogy új átírást adjunk a négysoros szövegről fordítással és rövid megjegyzésekkel kiegészítve.

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Abstract

In his treatise The Exposition of the Content of Virgil according to Moral Philosophy, Fabius Fulgentius allegorically interpreted the contents of Virgil's epic the Aeneid. The aim of our paper is to explain the main principles of Fulgentius' allegorization by analysing the first verse of Virgil's Aeneid. In Fulgentius' view, the 12 books of the epic depicted the three main stages of a human life as they follow the “natural order”: childhood, adolescence and adulthood. In his prologue (Fulg. Cont. 87. 4–6; 87. 11–89. 3; 89. 19–90. 17), the author supports his claim by presenting an allegorical interpretation of the first line of Virgil's epic (Verg. A. 1. 1), which contains three famous words: arma (“arms”), vir (“man”) and primus (“first”). According to Fulgentius, the first term arma (“arms”) represents virtus (“manliness”) in the sense of characteristics that are available to all human individuals during childhood. The second term vir (“man”) refers to sapientia (“wisdom”), which is related to the development of the ingenium (“mind”) during adolescence. The third term primus (“first”) symbolises the adult ability ornare (“to ornament”) what we have learnt in the first phases of our life. With life experience in childhood and adolescence, a person can gradually become princeps (“a ruler”). In other words, they can be “first” within a given society and thus conclude their personal development towards perfection. As such, the contents of Virgil's Aeneid correspond to these three terms: Books 1–3 to childhood, Books 4–6 to adolescence, and Books 7–12 to adulthood.

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A közlemény a hazai bizantinológia második generációjának legjelentősebb képviselője, Gyóni Mátyás (1913–1955) előtt tiszteleg. Három, eddig nem publikált magánlevelét adjuk közre. A leveleket írásuk időpontja, 1949 első fele teszi különlegessé, hiszen az 1948-ban létrejött kommunista egypárti diktatúra ebben az évben hajtotta végre a magyar tudományos élet szocialista átalakítását. A közleményhez fűzött bevezető, illetve megjegyzések e feszült időszak politikai és személyi viszonyai között segítenek eligazodni.

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A tanulmány Hypereidés Démosthenés ellen című beszédének három helyét elemzi és értelmezi, illetve szövegkritikai javítást javasol. A XXIX–XXX. columnákban foglalt közlések a Dióndas ellen elmondott beszéd megfelelő helyei alapján érthetőbbé válnak. A XXVIII. columna 21. sorában az αὐτῷ (pronomen personale – Jensen és minden szövegkiadó) helyett αὑτῷ (pronomen reflexivum) a helyes olvasat, amely helyreállítja a szöveghely értelmét. Chairóneia után nem a nép volt hálás Démosthenésnek, épp ellenkezőleg: a nép azt várta, hogy Démosthenés és társai lesznek hálásak neki. A lacunában elveszett név tehát nem Lykurgos, hanem Démosthenés.

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Abstract

In recent decades, there has been growing interest in the use of wills as historical sources. This period has seen a tenfold increase in the number of source publication volumes and editions published by Hungarian researchers, and an even greater increase in the number of wills published in their entirety. In the period under review, around 70 researchers have been actively working with this source type: besides the archivists spearheading their publication, dozens of legal historians, historians, and ethnographers have been involved in the work. Following an overview of the most important historical research antecedents and a brief appreciation of the work of Ernő Tárkány Szücs in this field, the present study examines the respective work carried out in Hungary during the last four decades, grouped according to the researched periods. With the publication of the Prothocollum Testamentorum of Bratislava, the number of published wills from the late Middle Ages significantly increased, while important findings have also emerged in terms of research on the wills of the nobility. From the early Middle Ages, a significant selection has been made from among the extant testaments originating from various royal free cities (e.g., Nagyszombat [Trnava, Slovakia], Sopron, and Debrecen) and market towns (e.g., Gyöngyös, Győr, and Kecskemét), while a significant number of wills belonging to the Transylvanian nobility have also been published. While large numbers of extant testaments originating from market towns (Nyíregyháza, Szentes, Vác, Zalaegerszeg, etc.) in the 18th and 19th centuries have been published, important publications have also appeared containing the wills of the nobility, clergy, and village serfs. The vast majority of such volumes have included a longer or shorter introductory study, although we might also mention the dozens of important analytical essays published in volumes of collected studies, which illustrate the value of testaments as sources in the fields of social, economic, cultural, ecclesiastical, and legal history.

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Abstract

Based on archival documents and supplementary ethnographic collections, this study reviews the autonomous community customs and legal traditions of the Jászkun people, starting in the 17th century and autonomously evolving among the jász [Jassic] and kun [Cuman] people in Hungary for centuries and preserved in certain peculiar Jászkun terms and vernacular expressions up until the 20th century. In view of legal ethnography and activity-oriented social history, my study has been divided into four parts: Kun, Jász, Jászkun; Legal customs and customary law before the Redemption (1745); The legal culture of the Jászkun District after the Redemption; The enacted customary law of the Jászkun: the Jászkun Statute. I specifically focused on the 18th century, for at the end of it the Jászkun Statute, the written customary law of the district, approved by the palatine, had been promulgated. The statute incorporated the legal customs practiced by the people of the Jászkun District before 1799 and facilitated the long-term survival of the specific unique features of local society and the high degree of differentiation of their legal practice. The customary laws of the Jászkun are history now, but in more than one aspect they still affect the everyday lives of late descendants.

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Lénaion, orchéstra és a régi agora •

Megjegyzések az archaikus Athén topográfiájához

Antik Tanulmányok
Author:
Gyula Lindner

Az utóbbi évtizedek kutatásai révén egyre világosabban áll előttünk az archaikus Athén topográfiája. Van azonban néhány olyan kérdés a VII–VI. századi városképben, amelyekre a napjainkban is zajló ásatások sem tudnak kielégítő választ adni. Az egyik ilyen homályos pont a Dionysos-színház felépülte előtt használt színházi tereket érinti: nem világos, hogy a Lénaionnak nevezett szentélykörzet, vagy a lexikográfusoknál olvasható orchéstra és ikria hol helyezkedett el, és az sem egyértelmű, hogy Athénban az Akropolis déli lejtőjén található színház mellett még milyen más helyszíneken voltak színielőadások, karversenyek. A tanulmány a fenti kérdéseket az archaikus Athén topográfiai problémáinak kontextusában vizsgálja a rendelkezésre álló irodalmi, régészeti és epigráfiai források tükrében.

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Psellos tankölteménye a nyelvtanról (poem. 6 Westerink) kevesek által olvasott munka. Tudománytörténeti jelentősége is csekély, hiszen többnyire jól ismert közhelyeket verselt meg tizenöt szótagos versekben. Érdekes viszont abból a szempontból, hogy milyen szerkesztési elv alapján kerekedtek egészszé Psellos tankölteményei. A vers szerkezetének vizsgálata mellett érdekes tanulsággal szolgál a koiné mint a bizánci dialektos jelentése Psellosnál, valamint a Theokritos költészetével kapcsolatos tanács (vs 30). A dolgozat függeléke a tanköltemény egy kézirattöredékének átírása, amelynek jegyzeteiből kiderül, hogy a tanköltemény tartalma és nyelvezete még egy bizánci másoló számára is komoly kihívást jelentett.

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Egy korábbi tanulmányban ismertetésre kerültek a vulgáris latin nyelvtani nemi rendszer jellemzői, viszont ekkor nem került sor az adatok statisztikai eszközökkel történő megvizsgálására. Jelen tanulmány célja, hogy statisztikai eszközök, elsődlegesen khi-négyzet-próbák segítségével lehessen árnyalni a korábbi eredményeket, továbbá meg lehessen vizsgálni különböző, a szakirodalomban felmerülő kérdéseket, így például, hogy jogos-e egyes hibák hiperkorrekt olvasata.

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Abstract

Recalling certain aspects of the research on Hungarian legal ethnography, the study deals with the relationship between law, customary law and legal custom. Customs of law is a significant field of law, inherited from the ancient legal order and created in the feudal-order society, which existed at the border of custom and formal law. The importance of the living conditions it governed gave rise to the institution of community coercion, which gave its rules a legal character. Eventually, it evolved in the “below” space left to it from the “above” and over time it acquired a tenacity that made it capable of maintaining a legal system in competition with the state, in response to a regulatory question not accepted by “official law.” The compliance and adherence to legal customs was based on the conviction of a community recognizing the need to adopt established rules and not on the competence, prestige, authority, legislative power and privilege of a legislative body.

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Abstract

The present study, authored by a legal historian, examines the relationship between legal history and legal folklore through an investigation, centered on the market town of Szentes, one of a distinctive group of market towns in Hungary's Southern Great Plain, of the legal folklore that emerged at the end of the 18th century as a result of historical antecedents as well as demographic, economic, and social changes. The system of norms and values, the customary law, and the wealth of legal folklore that developed in these towns in the 18–19th centuries in the process of the emergence of the local middle class subsequently influenced the development of civil law at central level. The present study analyzes regulatory practice concerning orphans in the wills of the serfs and peasants living in the market towns of Hungary's Southern Great Plain, preserved primarily in local sources, based on entries in the “Book of Agreements” of the market town of Szentes. It seeks to identify the specific characteristics of guardianship customs in the world of the “lower class,” including how the position of widowed women and their responsibility for their children evolved, as well as expectations concerning stepfathers in the absence of guardianship. It also investigates how it became common practice in the market towns of the Southern Great Plain for the inheritance of the orphans of serfs not to be preserved in kind but rather sold, and, in an effort to preserve its value, the money was loaned out and the resulting interest was used to provide the bare necessities for the orphans.

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Abstract

The Hungarian ethnographic group known as the Szekler people live in the Eastern Carpathians, a mountainous area that formed the eastern border of historical Hungary prior to 1920, and since 1920, with a minor interruption, the center of Romania. The traditionalist Szeklers designated those village districts that enjoyed ethnic autonomy by the name tizes (tenth). The author of the present study endeavors to illustrate, on the basis of written documents, the nature of the tizes as a Szekler village district and neighborhood community and how it functioned in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. In Szekler villages in the modern era, a village district was considered to be a genuine tizes if it had a tradition of self-governance and a variable level of autonomy, and if it was regarded as a self-governing unit of the settlement and society. The population of the tizes formed a local social, neighborhood group, whose sense of the tizes was consistent with the village-level consciousness of other, similar groups. From a settlement perspective, the village comprised several tizes, each one a unit of the settlement. In social terms, the village community was a combination of several tizes communities. In most cases, the Szekler tizes in the modern era had a distinguishing name, an elected leadership, property, basic self-governance, policing and penal jurisdiction, and its own records and administration. In the 17th to 19th centuries, the village districts and neighborhood communities designated by the word tizes may have owned property (e.g., forests, pastures, meadows), animals (bulls, boars), work-related equipment and objects (plow, drill, fire-fighting equipment, chest, stamp, documents), buildings and institutions (church, chapel, cemetery, school, cultural center, cross), and employees (bellringer, forester, herder). In most Szekler inhabited regions in the early 21st century, reminders of the former tizes are to be found only in the form of geographical names and vernacular data. The traditional form, role, and function of these historical autonomous village districts are best preserved in the region once known as the county of Csík in the former Kingdom of Hungary (now Ciuc, Romania). In the merged villages of Csíkszentgyörgy (now Ciucsângeorgiu, Romania) and Csíkbánkfalva (now Bancu, Romania) there are eight functioning tizes still in existence in the third decade of the 21st century. For this reason, the life of the tizes of Csíkszentgyörgy and Csíkbánkfalva has been chosen as the subject of the present study.

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A VII. (Bíborbanszületett) Konstantin császár neve alatt hagyományozódott De administrando imperio című munka egyedülálló adatokat szolgáltat (többek között) a magyarság korai történelmére vonatkozóan. A szövegben előforduló görögösített tulajdonnevekből – párhuzamos forrás hiányában – elsősorban a helynevek bevonásával és a jelentéstan eszközeivel próbálták rekonstruálni a magyar személyneveket. A tanulmány az Árpádok családfájának görög szövegét a kézirati hagyomány vizsgálatával, a segédtudományok (paleográfia, kodikológia) eszközeinek bevonásával igyekszik új megvilágításba helyezni.

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Abstract

Ernő Tárkány Szücs was a prominent figure in Hungarian social ethnography between 1944 and 1984. His involvement in the movement for collecting legal folk customs began as a university student in 1941. Among his professors and mentors, he was particularly influenced by György Bónis, Károly Viski, and József Venczel. His first large-scale study, published in 1944, was a presentation of legal folklore from the village of Mártély. At the same time, he investigated the folk laws related to sheep farming and the legal customs with respect to inheritance in the Hungarian villages in Transylvania. He published two substantial volumes containing the wills of peasant citizens of Hódmezővásárhely written between 1730 and 1796, and later the testaments of serf farmers from the town of Makó. He published a data collection containing around 10,000 ownership certificates and an analytical study in German on the branding of horses and cattle, accompanied by illustrations. He carried out research on the legal customs associated with Hungarian mining in the 17th to 19th centuries and elaborated Hungary's draft mining law. His principal work — on Hungarian Legal Folk Customs — is a substantial, comprehensive, and incomparably rich corpus of legal ethnography and the history of law. His work also gained recognition abroad: he spoke at many international conferences and was elected as a member of several international organizations.

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Federativna Jugoslavija i njezini jezici

The Languages of Federative Yugoslavia

Studia Slavica
Author:
Krešimir Mićanović

U radu se raspravlja o pravnoj regulaciji statusa jezika federativne Jugoslavije i njihovu nazivanju u razdoblju kojega su granične točke odluke AVNOJ-a iz 1944. godine te prva polovica travnja 1963. godine, kada se donosi drugi po redu Ustav. Za trajanja Drugoga svjetskog rata politička tijela države u nastajanju proklamirala su ravnopravnost četiriju jezika (u pravilu u izvornim se tekstovima navode redoslijedom): srpskoga, hrvatskoga, slovenskoga i makedonskoga. Tada je odlučeno, što se može smatrati temeljnim ostvarenjem proklamirane jezične ravnopravnosti na koju se obvezala federativna zakonodavna vlast, da će službeno glasilo objavljivati zakone nove države na tim četirima jezicima, odnosno da će glasilo istodobno izlaziti u četirima ravnopravnim izdanjima.

S donošenjem prvog Ustava početkom 1946. godine objavljivanje saveznih zakona na više jezika dobilo je i svoju ustavnu sankciju. Osim odredbe o objavljivanju zakona ustavotvorac je posebnim odredbama zajamčio nacionalnim manjinama slobodnu upotrebu svojega jezika te odredio da se postupak pred sudom vodi na jezicima republike, autonomne pokrajine ili oblasti. Ustavotvorac nijednom jeziku nije izričito dodijelio status službenoga (ili državnoga), ali je očito da razlikuje tri skupine jezika nejednaka statusa: jezike narodnih republika (objavljivanje zakona, vođenje sudskog postupka), jezike autonomnih pokrajina ili oblasti (vođenje sudskog postupka), jezike nacionalnih manjina (mogu se rabiti pred sudom). Ustavotvorna skupština u svojim poslovnicima izričito navodi u skladu s avnojskom praksom četiri jezika – srpski, hrvatski, slovenski i makedonski – ali je donijela Ustav 1946. godine u kojemu se ti jezici ne navode. Ustavni zakon, kojim je početkom 1953. znatno revidiran Ustav, u posebnoj odredbi regulira donošenje i objavljivanje save-znih zakona na jezicima svih narodnih republika, ali se ni u njoj ne navode nazivi tih jezika.

Rasprave vođene u ustavotvornim i zakonodavnim odborima, što su dosad u jezičnopolitičkim istraživanjima prema autorovu uvidu posve zanemarene, pokazuju da nenavođenje naziva jezika nije propust zakonodavca, nego rezultat političke odluke koja je provedena u Skupštini Jugoslavije, ali donesena, po svemu sudeći, u partijskom centru moći, u najužem vodstvu KP Jugoslavije, u prvom redu da bi se ustav rasteretio arbitriranja o tome jesu li hrvatski i srpski dva ili jedan jezik. U nepuna dva poslijeratna desetljeća jezici narodnih republika nisu dobili svoju ustavnu sankciju, ali, što pokazuje istražena građa, u nizu tekstova niže pravne snage (odluke, pravilnici, skupštinski poslovnici) federativna zakonodavna vlast izričito navodi srpski, hrvatski, slovenski i makedonski kao svoja četiri jezika.

S donošenjem Ustava SFRJ 1963. godine započinje novo ustavnopravno razdoblje u kojemu Skupština Jugoslavije mijenja svoj režim nazivanja jezika jugoslavenskih naroda, što znači u prvom redu da prestaje s uporabom glotonima hrvatski jezik i srpski jezik.

The paper discusses legal regulation of the status of the languages of federative Yugoslavia (FPRY) and their nomenclature in the period between the resolutions of the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia in 1944 and early April of 1963, when the second Constitution was ratified. During World War II, political bodies of the state to be proclaimed the equality of four languages: Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, and Macedonian (as a rule listed in this order in the documents). It was decided – and this can be considered the fundamental realization of the declared linguistic equality to which federative lawgiver pledged itself – that an official journal will publish statutes of the new state in those four languages, i.e. four editions will be published.

When the first Constitution was ratified in early 1946, the publication of statutes in several languages was sanctioned by the Constitution. In addition to the provision on publishing the statues, the lawmaker further guaranteed national minorities free use of their languages and mandated that judicial procedure is to be conducted in the languages of the respective republic, autonomous province, or region. No language was explicitly declared official (or federal) but it is obvious that three groups of languages of unequal status were distinguished: languages of people’s republics (publication of statutes, judicial procedure), languages of autonomous provinces or regions (judicial procedure), languages of national minorities (can be used in court). In its rules of procedure, the Constitutional Assembly explicitly lists the four languages – Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, and Macedonian – but the 1946 Constitution it ratified does not mention those languages. The Organic Law, which in early 1953 significantly revised the Constitution, includes a provision regulating the publication of federal statutes in the languages of all six people’s republics but the names of those languages are not specified.

Discussions in constitutional and legislative committees – thus far, by all accounts, ignored in studies of language politics – prove that this was not an omission on the part of the lawgiver but the result of a political decision (formally by the Federal Assembly, yet more likely by the powers that be in the inner circle of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia), first and foremost so that the Constitution would not be burdened with arbitrating whether Croatian and Serbian are a single language or not. In the two post-war decades, languages of people’s republics failed to secure constitutional sanction but, as the material under study shows, in a series of documents of lesser legal power (decrees, ordinances, and rules of procedure) federative legislature explicitly lists Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, and Macedonian as its four languages.

The ratification of the 1963 SFRY Constitution marks the beginning of a new constitutional era, in which the Federal Assembly changes its regime of naming languages of the Yugoslav peoples, which above all means that the linguonyms Croatian language and Serbian language are no longer used.

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Abstract

The object of folk law research are the customs that prevail in areas covered, or theoretically covered, by state law, which effectively ensure permanent respect for them, largely in a less formalized way. In the respective historical stratum, (folk) legal customs fulfil functions equivalent to the law where, due to the logic of historical development or for other specific reasons, (a) there is a lack of state and legal organization; (b) the state and legal organization fails to reach significant social groups due to its paucity and indifference; or (c) the law fails to be transformed into practice that would lead to the fulfillment of its true functions. In its present-day version, a legal (folk) custom emerges when the state and legal organization has wholly fulfilled the functions in question, and it survives merely within the framework and vestiges of that organization, as a component of the ongoing system of customs, as a complement and embellishment to the state and legal organization, and perhaps with content of only symbolic significance. Against a background of a living peasant society, this was, and to some extent remains, a peculiarity of Central Europe, while in other contexts, starting from different traditions, the related research comes under the domain of legal anthropology, legal ethnology, and legal pluralism. Legal ethnography contributes to the investigation of social ethnographic issues by examining the instruments and institutions of the social order and the way they function. However, in terms of jurisprudence it is simultaneously both strong and weak, since although the idea of living law has revolutionized legal thought, European legal mentality, which rests on the rule-based objectification of modern formal law, nevertheless seeks to reject both the openness that characterizes the primordial quest for peace and the formlessness familiar to peoples living close to nature. In any case, an ethnography with social-theoretical foundations, which would take into account not only legal anthropology but also the socio-ethnographic lessons of legal ethnography, remains a task for the future.

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Abstract

In 1583, the Transylvanian Saxon community obtained from the Transylvanian prince István Báthory the ratification of its own law book, Eygen-Landrecht. For quarter of a millennium, the law book essentially defined everyday law in this unique community in Transylvania, a multiethnic region that has undergone many constitutional changes. The law book can be seen as a compilation of genetically different legal regulations, containing and combining indigenous legal traditions and legal customs with the “scholarly” law (ius commune) developed by university jurisprudence of Italian origin. The present study describes the Saxons' determined quest for laws in the 15th and 16th centuries, relegating to the background the reception paradigm typical of research on the history of law and relying on the theoretical model of the transfer of legal rules and legal irritants. It examines the external and internal circumstances that impacted the Saxons' attempts at legal renewal, and the number of phases involved. It also investigates the temporal, locally bound, and legal-cultural factors that may have played a role in the success or failure of transfer of legal approaches from abroad, and the extent to which what can be regarded as the traditional law of the Saxons was able to resist attempts at renewal. In the last section of the present paper, examples are given that illustrate the encounter between Germanic legal traditions and the transferred ius commune solutions in the Saxons' law book of 1583, highlighting the durability of certain traditional and typical solutions.

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Abstract

The present paper describes the native craft education and research carried out at the University of Tartu Viljandi Culture Academy in Estonia. ‘Native crafts’ are understood as creative technical and cultural practices, applications, and developments that are based on traditional local crafting techniques, materials, design principles, and skills. The mission of the academy is to represent the values that reinforce and re-establish local and national traditions and identities through active participation in the cultural process. Its courses, which were launched in 1994, have been developed to cover the majority of the traditional crafting techniques, skills, and materials that are used throughout Estonia. By means of these courses, the academy has assumed responsibility for teaching, preserving, and integrating Estonian vernacular culture and skills. It is the only institution in Estonia advancing the practice-based research and popularization of Estonian traditional costumes, jewelry, and construction, for example, at the level of higher education. The present paper provides an overview of the BA and MA program in native crafts and their main developmental trends. It also offers a more detailed overview of costume studies as part of the textile program. It covers the history, techniques, and regional peculiarities of traditional costumes, as well as the innovative ways in which traditional materials, patterns, and ornaments can be used in modern fashion.

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У статті систематизовано підходи до вивчення понять ідіолект та ідіостиль вітчизняними та за-рубіжними вченими, з’ясовуються ознаки цих термінів та критерії їх розмежування. Відібраний фактичний матеріал опрацьовано за допомогою описового, контекстуально-інтерпретаційного ме-тодів із залученням аналізу психологічних джерел. Проаналізовано дефініції, наведені в авторитет-них джерелах – словниках, енциклопедіях, статтях, дисертаціях. Доведено, що навіть в найавтори-тетніших виданнях терміни ідіолект та ідіостиль ототожнюються.

Описано основні причини ототожнення термінів, окреслено принципові відмінності в їх тлума-ченні, наведено паралельні терміновживання. Осмислено соціальну природу та лінгвальну сутність ідіолекту. Констатовано, що під час характеристики ідіолекту мовної особистості слід спрямовувати увагу на сукупність мовних фактів, притаманних мовленню індивіда, а при описуванні ідіостилю – на систему смислових відношень, суб’єктивні рефлексії, манеру моделювання художнього світу, орнаменталіку, що репрезентуються мовними засобами. Зазначено, що ідіостиль має ширшу сферу вживання, ніж ідіолект.

Автор підтримує погляд тих мовознавців, які вважають ідіолект частиною ідіостилю (це праці Лесі Ставицької, Світлани Єрмоленко, Віктора Григор’єва та Павла Гриценка). Виокремлено лінгво-культурологічний, соціолінгвістичний, стилістичний, лінгвокогнітивний підходи, що використову-ються під час багатоаспектної інтерпретації ідіолекту, та семантико-стилістичний, лінгвопоетичний системно-структурний, комунікативно-діяльнісний і когнітивний – як продуктивні аспекти дослі-дження ідіостилю.

Акцентовано увагу на тому, що психолінгвістичний аспект дослідження ідіолекту та ідіостилю розроблений в науці недостатньо. Запропоновано власне визначення ідіолекту й ідіостилю з по-зицій теорії психолінгвістики. Деталізовано параметри ідіостилю в психолінгвістичному ракурсі, зокрема: 1) емоційна характеристика тексту, 2) позиціонування автора в тексті, 3) емоційно-смис-лова домінанта, 4) ціннісні психологічні орієнтири продуцента, 5) засоби впливу на реципієнта. Уважаємо, що в перспективі необхідно поглибити розуміння досліджуваних понять крізь призму теорії мовної особистості й учення про психологічні параметри текстового аналізу.

The paper focuses on the systematization of approaches to studying the notions idiolect and idiostyle undertaken by Ukrainian and foreign researchers; the characteristic features of these terms and the criteria for their differentiation are also clarified. The selected material was traced through by applying descriptive and context-interpretation methods, which were supplemented by involving the analysis of psychological resources. The author gives an analysis of the definitions cited from reputable sources as dictionaries and encyclopedias as well as various papers and dissertation theses. It is proved that even in the most authoritative publications, the terms idiolect and idiostyle are identified.

The basic reasons calling on the identification of the terms are defined, while the main distinctions as to their interpretation and parallel term applications are demonstrated as well. The social nature and the linguistic character of the idiolect are analyzed, so far it is stated that for the purpose of characterizing the idiolect of the linguistic personality, the attention is to be drawn to the set of linguistic factors intrinsic to the speech of individuals, while the description of idiostyle is based on the system of semantic correlations, subjective reflections, manner of modelling the artistic world and ornamentalistics, as they are incarnated by linguistic devices. It is pointed out that idiostyle has a broader range of application than idiolect.

The author favours the viewpoint of the linguists who interpret idiolect as a component of idiostyle (e.g. Lesia Stavytska, Svitlana Yermolenko, Viktor Hryhoriev, and Pavlo Hrytsenko). Linguocultural, sociolinguistic, stylistic, and linguocognitive approaches are singled out, since they are used for a multi-faceted interpretation of idiolect, while semantic-stylistic, linguopoetical, systemic-structural, communicative-functional, and cognitive aspects as productive elements are applied for the study of idiostyle.

The attention is drawn to the fact that the psycholinguistic aspect of studying idiolect and idiostyle is still not thoroughly elaborated on. The author gives her own definition of idiolect with reference to the psycho-linguistic theory. The parameters of idiostyle within the psycholinguistic sphere are detailed: in particular, 1) the emotional characteristics of the text, 2) the positioning of the author within the text content, 3) the dominating emotional-semantic elements, 4) the value-based psychological guidelines of the individuals, and 5) the devices of impact on the recipients. It is considered that in the future, it is necessary to elaborate more deeply on the analyzed phenomena by applying the theory of linguistic personality and the theory of psychological parameters of text analysis.

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Abstract

Géza Alföldy (1935–2011) is considered as one of the most important epigraphists and historians of the Roman civilization of the late 20th century, known also as “Mommsen of our ages”. His contribution is indispensable not only for the discipline of Roman epigraphy and social history, but also for the study of Roman religion. His intellectual roots in Hungary and the influence of the Hungarian scholarly tradition of the 1950’s marked his interest in the study of Roman religion for a long period. In this study, the authors discuss the formation of Géza Alföldy and his contribution to the discipline through a wider academic and socio-historical context.

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Az Erdélyi Udvari Kancellária bécsi palotájának magyar történeti tárgyú pannói, August Rumel művei 1756‒1758-ból

The panneaux on hungarian historical themes in the vienna palace of the transylvanian court chancellary

Művészettörténeti Értesítő
Author:
Szabolcs Serfőző

The topic of the paper is a cycle of six large panneaux on Hungarian historical themes panted for the Vienna palace of the Transylvanian Court Chancellery. The series on Hun–Hungarian history from leaving behind the original habitat to the battle of Mohács is the earliest relic of Hungarian history painting, yet earlier researches only tangentially touched on it despite its salient importance.

When the Principality of Transylvania became part of the Central European Habsburg Monarchy as a independent land in 1690, Leopold I founded the Transylvanian Court Chancellery in 1693 as the highest governing organ of Transylvania. Based in Vienna, the office functioned in diverse rented buildings for a long time, before the freshly appointed chancellor of Transylvania Gábor Bethlen (1712–1768) purchased a building in Vienna in 1755 for the office. He chose the Sinzendorf palace in Hintere Schenkenstrasse across from the Löwel bastion (later replaced by the Burgtheater) close to the palace of the Hungarian Chancellery. It functioned until it was demolished in 1880. In 1755–1759 the chancellor had a representative suite of rooms created on the second floor also including a dining room. Its walls were covered by six large (c. 325 x 310 cm) painted wall hangings or spalliers. It is known from a description by Mór Jókai that the cycle contained three scenes from the Hun–Hungarian prehistory and three from the history of the Christian Hungarian Kingdom. 1) Exodus of the Magyars from their original habitat bordering on China; 2) Pagan priest officiating a fire sacrifice and the Hun king Attila (?), 3) Prince of Moravia Svatopluk sells Pannonia to the chieftain of the Magyars Árpád for a white horse, 4) Saint Stephen converts the Magyars to Christianity, 5) King Matthias Hunyadi enters Vienna in 1486, 6) The battle of Mohács in 1526.

In a study published in 1906 Piarist historian–archivist Sándor Takáts (1860–1932) adduced several data on the artists and artisans working on interior decoration of the chancellery palace including painters, presumably on the basis of the artists’ bills. These documents together with all the files of the Directorium in publicis et cameralibus perished in a fire that broke out in Vienna’s Justizpalast in 1927. The Hungarian historical panneaux were presumably painted by August Rumel (1715–1778) who features in the sources as Historienmaler and painter of the Viennese citizenry. On the basis of indirect information, the cycle can be tentatively dated to 1756–1758, as they were already included in the inventory of the chancellery in 1759.

The Transylvanian Court Chancellery hardly used its first headquarters for one and a half decades after 1766. When in 1782 Joseph II merged the Transylvanian and Hungarian chancelleries, the Transylvanian office moved in 1785 next door to its sister institution, which had had a palace since 1747 a street further, in Vordere Schenkenstrasse, i.e. today’s Bankgasse. They moved in the one-time Trautson house. Parallel with that the treasury sold the former centre of the Transylvanian chancellery which was bought by imperial and royal chamberlain Count Mihály Nádasdy (1746–1826).

As far as Jókai knew, the panneaux became court property in the 1780s and they were purchased at an auction in 1809 by Countess Rozália Bethlen (1754–1826) and transported to Transylvania. They can be identified in the chattels inventory for 1839 of the Jósika palace in Kolozsvár. Later the panneaux were inherited within the Jósika family. Elected minister a latere in 1895, Sámuel Jósika (1848–1923) had the cycle transported to Vienna and put them up in the “Hungarian house”, his official place, today the house of the Hungarian embassy. When his incumbency expired, the pictures went back to Transylvania and passed down in the Jósika family. In 1945 four of the pictures got lost. The two surviving pictures were purchased by the Hungarian State and hung up in the gala room of the Hungarian Embassy in Vienna in 2008 where they can still be seen.

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Bakócz Tamás címerével ellátott tárgyak egykor az esztergomi főszékesegyházban •

Tárgyegyüttes-rekonstrukció a kincstár leltárai alapján

Objects carrying the coat of arms of tamás bakócz once in the cathedral of esztergom •

Reconstruction of an assortment of objects on the basis of treasury inventories
Művészettörténeti Értesítő
Author:
Ágnes Szabó

The study collects the liturgical textiles with connection to the person of Cardinal Tamás Bakócz (1497–1521), archbishop of Esztergom, which used to be in the cathedral sometime in the past. The method adopted is looking diachronically through the basilica treasury’s inventories and other, 16–18th century written sources (high priests’ testaments). The main aim of the research is to explore the history of the survival of the chasuble adorned with the cardinal-archbishop’s coat of arms and preserved in the treasury of Esztergom cathedral. Apart from collecting the paraments, the study also gives a glimpse of the maintenance of paraphernalia in the treasury of the Esztergom basilica and its history after the lost battle at Mohács in 1526.

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Címereslevelek a Jagelló-kori Magyarországon •

Függelékben a II. Ulászló és II. Lajos magyar királyok által adományozott Címereslevelek jegyzékével (1490–1526)

Letters Patent in Hungary in the Jagiellonian Age •

List of letters patent granted by Vladislav II and Louis II, kings of Hungary (1490–1526)
Művészettörténeti Értesítő
Author:
Árpád Mikó

The introductory part of the study reviews the historiography of research into jagiellonian letters patent of nobility and the art historical problems of the illuminations. a similar survey was compiled sixty years earlier by dénes radocsay. since then several deeds of granting armorial bearings have cropped up, and lots of new data have been found in historical sources about once existing, now lost or latent, letters patent. the introduction is not meant to thoroughly revise dénes radocsay’s groups compiled by style critical criteria, but it touches on several questions solved or seen more clearly now. For example, the mark of an early 16th century buda illuminator’s hand is preserved not only by letters with armorial bearings, but also by three fragmentary liturgical manuscripts, and the oeuvre of the so-called bakócz monogrammist – who painted the coats of arms in the most representative letters patent in greatest numbers during louis ii’s reign – has been considerably extended.

A few words about the arrangement of the data in the list. the letters patent follow in chronological order, the years of granting emphasized for better orientation.

Vladislav ii’s letters patent arranged by years are followed by a few items that cannot be dated accurately. line one traditionally contains the names of the grantees, modernized – if possible – but not in phonetic transcription gaining ground lately. (i attach the original form of the name in parentheses.) then come dating, measurements, place of preservation and (when known) provenance. the most important data are followed by the list of works in which the given diploma is mentioned. it includes hand-written – 18th and 19th century – mentions, copied texts, as well as items of the modern special literature.

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The present article contains the philological edition of the Old Babylonian Sumerian composition Dumuzi and Ĝeštinanna (UET 6, 11), a study of its literary characteristics, intertextual elements, allusions, and early hermeneutic techniques.

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This paper deals with the Saljūqnāma of the Ottoman scholar Ahmed ibn Mahmud. It focuses on the two unexploited poems inserted into his Mantzikert account, and juxtaposes them with the world chronicles in verse that have been written by Constantine Manasses and Ehpraim of Ainos. The three writers recount the same event from different viewpoints. Ephraim absolves Diogenes from any responsibility, while Manasses seeks the reasons for the defeat in battle in his severe attitude. For Ahmed, the Seljuk victory came exclusively from God’s hands which were long enough to reach and protect the pious sultan with his warriors.

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Kegyúri segítség a puszták népének – telepes és pusztai templomok építészeti pályázatai a 20. század első évtizedében

Patronal grace for the people of the puszta – architectural competitions for settler churches in the first decade of the 20th century

Művészettörténeti Értesítő
Authors:
Nóra Németh
and
Katalin Marótzy

Around 1903–04 there was an outstanding number of sacral design competitions in Hungary, two of which at first glance seem very similar, and their juxtaposition even seemed to be a way of drawing more general conclusions. the Ministry of agriculture was looking for plans for churches in designs for villages to be settled by the state treasury, while the archdiocese of Kalocsa was looking for designs for Catholic churches to be built on the outskirts of subotica. the calls for proposals were for buildings of roughly the same size, a year apart, both seeking a solution to a pressing, long-standing problem. the problem was architectural, simply put: many churches were missing. the tendering process was not cheap, but it was the most efficient way to obtain many plans at once.

Comparing the competitions, various aspects were taken into account, firstly, the similarities and differences between the procedures, which were mainly due to the characteristics differences between of the institutions commissioning the work. the second was an architectural analysis, clarifying issues of building size, and then we looked at the characteristics of the design and layout. in this context, we reviewed the texts of the judging reports and made general observations on the two juries. the longer more extended, more professional review was analysed with the aim of reconstructing from the comments, summarising the criteria of the critique, the possible ideal types against which the judges compared the entries.

As a result, we have registered a kind of transition in sacral architecture in the mid-1900s, in which traditional form and spatial shaping were dominant, but also the signs of a later formalisation that would come to fruition in the 1910s. this transition can also be observed in professional texts on architecture, which evolved into professional writing that flourished in the years leading up to the First World War.

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This paper presents a critical edition of a hitherto unknown Crimean version of the famous Noghay epic Edige. This version is anonymous and undated, probably copied in the 19th century. It contains seven pages of a codex of various contents and is incomplete. Despite being so short, this version is very interesting as it was copied in Hebrew script. After comparing this text with other versions, such as those in Crimean Tatar, Noghay, Baraba, Karakalpak and Kazakh, the article demonstrates that this version is closest to the Crimean Tatar and Noghay versions.

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Amongst the finds of the Chinese archaeologists at the centre portion of the West Zone of the Tuyoq Grottoes in the Turfan region of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, People’s Republic of China, there are three wooden plates with Old Uyghur writing, which I identify as nameplates. They have some similarities to the nameplates preserved in the Berlin Turfan collection of the Museum für Asiatische Kunst. However, the two nameplates from Tuyoq also show clear divergences from the known wooden nameplates in the Berlin Turfan collection of the Museum für Asiatische Kunst in regards to their form and content. They are unique, and it is the first time such wooden nameplates were discovered in the Tuyoq Grottoes. This article begins with a short survey of research of recent Old Uyghur materials discovered in the Tuyoq Grottoes. Then, it presents a philological investigation of the three wooden nameplates which is followed by a classification of the wooden objects with Old Uyghur writing. At the end, the article discusses the function of wooden objects with Old Uyghur writing in the Old Uyghur society, focusing on the function of the wooden nameplates.

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Little has been known about Weiwu’erbali, a place name found only in Chinese records from the Ming Dynasty. As this place name has not been thoroughly examined in sources other than Chinese, discussion related to it has so far been limited to its approximate location. However, Chaghatay documents recently found in Qomul shed new light on the place. By referring to documents and oral sources, the present study aims to identify the precise location of Urghuybalïq mentioned in the Chaghatay documents, and trace the change of the place name until its fall into oblivion.

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