Social Sciences and Law

Abstract

The study examines the legislative issues associated with providing a legal solution to the problem of the circus training of wild animals in the post-communist context. These issues are demonstrated using the example of the Czech Republic. In 2020, the country passed a comprehensive amendment to Act No. 246/1992 Coll. on the Protection of Animals Against Cruelty, which prohibits, among other things, the training of wild animals in circuses with effect from January 2022. The study focuses on the following research questions: What are the main determinants of the prohibition of wild animal training? and, What were the main arguments with respect to the wild animal training prohibition mentioned by politicians during the parliamentary debate? The data analysed here consist of parliamentary debates and texts presented by institutions advocating for or against the ban.

Összefoglalás. A biztonságra evidenciaként tekint az utazó a desztinációválasztás során. Annak tartalma erősen szubjektív, egyénenként eltérő szintet képvisel. A COVID–19-járvány időszakában megvalósult kutatásunk válasszal kívánt szolgálni többek között arra, hogy az időskorú német utazók esetében mely faktorok határozzák meg leginkább a desztináció preferenciát, és ez hogyan tükröződik a költésükben. 2021. július–október között megvalósításra került személyes megkérdezés végső mintáját 347 fő (55+ éves) német szenior utazó adta. Az eredmények rámutattak, hogy a marketingtudomány által, általánosan homogénként kezelt fogyasztói szegmens további alszegmensekre bontható, tipizálható, továbbá a desztináció preferenciát esetükben leginkább az infrastruktúra minősége és a biztonság határozza meg.

Summary. Introduction: Tourism does not exist without security. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, security is the second most determinant aspect after physiological concerns. We consider that as an evident fact, thus the secure nature of a destination is an obvious expectation regarding travelling aspects. The measure and actual meaning of this latter component is quite subjective, thus it varies person by person. Security can be investigated from several aspects, so it is important to highlight that our sample was analysed in relation to health security concerns.

Investigation materials and methods: In our research, conducted during the period of the COVID-19 pandemic, we pursued to outline the role of security, as well as the so-called Corona-Protocol, which was established for prevention purposes regarding the chosen destinations in the case of elderly travellers, and to find out how it is reflected in their touristic spending. We conducted personal interviews (PAPI) between July and October 2021 with the participation of 419 people, whose final sample – after being filtered regarding age and nationality aspects – consisted of 347 German senior (age group: 55+) travellers. The survey was carried out on three locations within Hungary (Pécs, Kalocsa, Budapest) with the participation of coordinators.

Research outcomes: The received replies were analysed – at first, the 48 touristic variables were submitted to factor analysis, which helped in the allocation of main components. By the use of these main components, we identified further sub-segments (traveller types) within the segments, which gave a superb illustration about the inaccurate nature of the practice, when senior travellers are considered as a homogenous group. In the case of five clusters – despite similar age averages – we identified distinct characteristics concerning the aspects of qualifications, incomes and the measure of touristic expenses, while the priorities regarding destination expectations, security, infrastructure and pricing were also different. Despite their relatively weak explanation capacities, our outcomes – received by regression modelling – pointed out that regarding our sample, the measure of touristic expenses was mostly determined by the infrastructural quality of destination and security. Thereby we can answer the question how much the cost of security for German senior travellers is. Furthermore, another outcome was the realisation that different habitat locations within the same home country have significant impact on the spending of German senior travellers. Our research could constitute an appropriate basis for further research regarding the investigated subject and traveller segment.

Összefoglalás. Egyes korcsoportokban (pl. fiatal felnőttek) és szakmákban (pl. rendőrök) az átlagosnál magasabb a dohányzók aránya. A tanulmány célja a rendészeti felsőoktatási hallgatók dohányzási szokásainak és nikotinfüggőségük súlyosságának vizsgálata. Keresztmetszeti, kérdőíves vizsgálatot végeztünk az NKE RTK rendészeti hallgatói körében (n = 180). A nikotinfüggőség súlyosságát a Fagerström Nikotinfüggőségi Teszttel (FTND) és a Dohányzás Súlyossága Indexszel (DSI) vizsgáltuk. A válaszadók körében 81,1% a dohányzás életprevalenciája, 24,4% jelenleg dohányzó, 14,4% naponta dohányzik. Az FTND alapján a naponta dohányzók 96,1% enyhe/nagyon enyhe nikotinfüggő, míg a DSI alapján 73,1%-nak alacsony a nikotinfüggősége. A rendészeti felsőoktatás hallgatóinak dohányzása nem elhanyagolható probléma, ráadásul jelentős közegészségügyi és biztonsági aspektusai is vannak.

Summary. In some age groups (e.g. students) and professions (e.g. police officers), the proportion of smokers is higher than in the general population. The aim of this study is to assess the smoking habits and heaviness of nicotine dependence of Hungarian law enforcement students. A cross-sectional, web-based survey was conducted among law enforcement students at the Faculty of Law Enforcement of the University of Public Service (n = 180). The heaviness of nicotine dependence was measured by the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) and the Heaviness of Smoking Index (HSI). Respondents reported 81.1% lifetime prevalence of smoking, 24.4% were current smokers, and 14.4% were daily smokers. Based on the FTND, 96.1% of daily smokers had low/very low nicotine dependence, while based on the HSI, 73.1% of daily smokers had low nicotine dependence. Smoking among law enforcement students is not a negligible problem, and it also has significant public health and security aspects.

Összefoglalás. A krónikus napközbeni aluszékonyság és a vele járó figyelemzavar igen gyakori panasz, amely jelentősen rontja a munkavégzés teljesítményét, az életminőséget, összetett mechanizmus révén gátolja a mentális funkciókat, gyakran vezethet – munkahelyi és közlekedési balesetek okozójaként – fatális következményhez is. A krónikus napközbeni aluszékonyság mint panasz mögött a krónikus alvás depriváció mellett az elsődleges alvászavarokat kell keresnünk.

Summary. Police and military service, at the appropriate level of care, require neuropsychological functions from the service provider such as constant vigilance, sustained attention and concentration, and the compulsion to make quick, responsible decisions. However, the service is often accompanied by difficult external conditions, such as monotony, harsh weather factors, or shift work, which place a heavy burden on the service provider.

In both police and military service, in addition to a varied shift schedule, we often expect special mental and physical performance from those serving. However, a multi-shift schedule breaks the circadian rhythm of service, causing metabolic and hormonal changes, and can have a profound effect on one’s behavior and one can remain deeply inferior to oneself during a given performance. Not everyone is adaptable to such conditions, especially those with primary sleep disorders. Therefore, it is particularly important to recognize those suffering from primary sleep disorders among multi-shift workers. People with severe obstructive sleep apnea have an abnormally high degree of daytime sleep and their attention, concentration, vigilance, work and cognitive performance decline significantly compared to their peers in multi-shift work conditions.

Much of the experience gained in the field of sleep disorders becomes a practice in the field of occupational health. One of our main goals was to make the diagnosis, treatment and screening of diseases belonging to this professional and scientific topic.

The Military Health Sleep Diagnostic Laboratory is tasked with screening out dyssomnia sufferers from performing under special multi-shift conditions.

During military service, in modern warfare, the importance of multi-shift work schedules, the continuous standby system, and work periods of different than usual duration and content have increased.

All of this has significantly changed the demands on human performance during waking hours and the role of sleep in regeneration, restoration, preparation. In parallel with these requirements, unwanted drowsiness and exhaustion also increased in everyday work, and manifested itself in errors and accidents during operational actions.

Sleep deprivation fundamentally affects cognitive areas such as speed of thinking, decision making, divergent thinking, executive functions, emotions, understanding humor, memory, morality, risk taking, and alertness. A number of special functions are associated with the prefrontal cortex. Judgment, decision making, impulse control, attention, and visual association are related to this part of the cerebral cortex. This area of the cortex is very vulnerable and, as a result of sleep deprivation, a disturbance of the functions represented here can be observed.

Sleep disorders severely and often unexpectedly limit mental and physical performance. They can cause serious confusion during training, exercise, and tactical and operational activities, so knowledge of them is important for prevention, interpretation, and effective therapy. Sleep disorders can occur in greater numbers due to the special conditions of police and military service.

Abstract

This study investigates teacher learning and professional development in school-university partnership in Myanmar. This study explores teacher learning and professional development through engaging in a school-university partnership through mentoring activity. Research studies have shown mentoring can improve teachers' learning and professional development (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2000). A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was applied in this study. Participants were 120 schoolteachers in the quantitative part while 4 participants were interviewed. This study aimed to answer how the impact of school-university partnership on teacher learning and professional development can be understood. To answer this research question, two groups of schoolteachers (mentor and non-mentors) and three groups of teachers based on communication level with student teachers were compared. The results showed that teachers who had mentoring experiences improved their professional skills and competencies more than non-mentor teachers mainly in the areas: pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge about learners' behaviours and characteristics and cross-curricular skills. Furthermore, teachers who had intensive communication with student teachers showed higher mean values in self-confidence, enjoyment in teaching and reflection on teaching practices and feeling like a responsible person in education. Findings from the qualitative part showed that teachers learned these skills and competencies through intensive collaborative activities such as discussing teaching and learning, guiding student teachers in their classroom management and planning a lesson and having a friendly conversation with them. Overall, this study confirms that engaging in school-university partnership through mentoring enhances mentors develop their self-confidence, and enjoyment in teaching as well as their professional knowledge and skills.

Összefoglalás. A bűnügyi együttműködés joga jelentős fejlődésen ment keresztül az uniós tagállamok egymás közötti viszonyaiban az integráció utóbbi 25 évében. Legfőbb jellemzője e fejlődésnek az együttműködési formák „eljogiasodása” és formalizálása, valamint genuin, új uniós jogintézmények megszületése, amely a tagállamok kölcsönös bizalmán alapul. A közel-keleti országokkal való együttműködés szükségessége egyre nyilvánvalóbb, azonban az ezekre a viszonyokra vonatkozó jogszabályi háttér nem létezik, vagy legfeljebb minimális, ami az egyén – akit érinthet az államok közötti bűnügyi együttműködési eljárás – számára e lehető legnagyobb biztonsági kockázatot hordozza. A tanulmány feltérképezi azokat a hatásokat, amelyek az uniós fejlődésből a harmadik államokkal való együttműködésre vonatkoznak (extraterritoriális hatások), és kimutatja, hogy az uniós jog többletkövetelményeket támaszt a tagállamok felé még ilyen, az uniós jog hatálya alá (látszólag) nem tartozó kérdésekben. Kitér a munka arra is, hogy az Európa Tanács jogfejlesztő tevékenységének hol van a helye ezen a spektrumon, valamint arra is, hogy az ENSZ bűnözéskontroll egyezményei miként játszhatnak szerepet a jelen témakörben.

Summary. For centuries, the issue of judicial cooperation has been part of the foreign policy of the state as a means of promoting the political interests of the rulers (governments) and its actual judicial or legal content could not be identified. Cooperation between law enforcement and judicial authorities of different countries is therefore the oldest form of action against internationally ‘mobile’ offenders or crimes of transnational nature. The original aim was to prevent the perpetrator from escaping prosecution, and cooperation was therefore exercised against the interests of the person concerned. It was only in the second half of the 20th century that academia recognised that a person involved in extradition proceedings (and any other form of international criminal cooperation) may have individual rights and interests that are separate from those of the state. Thus, the individual (accused, victim, witness) emerges as a third actor in the context of cooperation between two states – based on international law and sovereignty – and, especially with the firm establishment of human rights protection regimes, also takes a place in these proceedings. Thus, international cooperation now involves three interests: the State requesting assistance, the State providing assistance and the person concerned. The law on cooperation in criminal matters has evolved considerably in the EU Member States’ relations with each other over the last 25 years of integration and pursues new paths that are completely divorced from traditional thinking as described above. The main feature of this development is the ‘juridification’ and formalisation of forms of cooperation and the emergence of genuine new EU legal institutions based on mutual trust between Member States. The need for cooperation with the countries of the Middle East and North Africa is becoming increasingly apparent, but the legal framework for these relations is non-existent or minimal at best, which poses the greatest possible security risk for the individual who may be affected by the inter-state cooperation procedures in criminal matters. The study explores the implications of EU developments for cooperation with third states (extraterritorial effects) and shows that EU law imposes additional requirements on Member States even in such matters as they can be covered by EU law. Accordingly, the inter-state horizontal impact of the Charter of Fundamental Rights, the extraterritorial impact of EU crime control instruments and the explicit agreements on criminal cooperation are briefly discussed. The work also discusses the place of the Council of Europe’s law development activities in this spectrum: the European human rights protection, in particular with regard to extradition, entails additional requirements that Member States must comply with even when cooperating with a state outside the Council of Europe. Furthermore the role of the UN conventions on crime control is addressed by the study briefly.

Summary. The paper examines whether cyber volunteers are reshaping the modern conflicts. The case study serving as the proof-of-hypothesis for the paper is the Russian war against Ukraine. The hypothesis is that such groups will be part of future conflicts. We examine the conditions for group formation. We find that conditions will be present and such groups will become part of war and also of peacetime in the coming years. Hence, we advocate – de lege ferenda – that public policies and capabilities shall be adapted to this new reality accordingly, taking into account the capabilities, volatility and value-driven nature of these groups.

Összefoglalás. A tanulmány azt vizsgálja, hogy a kiberönkéntesek átformálják-e a modern konfliktusokat. A tanulmány hipotézise szerint az ilyen csoportok a jövőbeli konfliktusok szerves részei lesznek. E hipotézis esettanulmányául az Ukrajna elleni orosz háború szolgál. Vizsgálatra kerülnek a csoportképződés feltételei, ahol a tapasztalat azt mutatja, hogy a feltételek adottak lesznek, és az ilyen csoportok a háború, illetve a békeidő részévé válnak az elkövetkező években.

Mindez egy alulszabályozott és alulellenőrzött közegben történik. Egyrészt nincs szabályozás az államközi kibertérben sem, csupán erre való kísérletek történtek, de érdemi nemzetközi szerződés nem született. Másrészt a nemzetállami kereteken belül sem gyakori a kiberbiztonsági jogszabályok kikényszerítése, legfeljebb a gazdasági, nemi erkölcs elleni és katonai bűncselekmények esetén tudunk rendszeresen sikeres felderítésről. Jogi értelemben a kiberönkéntesek óriási kockázatot vállalnak, amely részben a saját államuk jogszabályainak valószínű megsértéséből ered, részben pedig a megtámadott ország esetleges jogi vagy egyéb megtorlásának veszélye miatt.

Ezek mellett is közel háromszázezer fős kiberönkéntes mozgalom csatlakozott az ukrán–orosz háború kibertérben zajló csatájához. Ez közel hússzor több önkéntes, mint az idegen fegyveresek létszáma az ukrán csapatok mellett. Az önkéntes csoportok megalakulásában az értékközpontúság játszotta a meghatározó szerepet. A háborút övező narratívák mentén karakteres ukránpárti csoportok alakultak az orosz agresszióval szemben, és reakcióként az oroszpárti csoportok létrejötte is elindult. Az ukrán kormány a kommunikációs csatornák nyitva tartásával – közös platformokon részt vesznek önkéntesek és hivatalos személyek – igyekszik rálátást, és adott esetben befolyást szerezni az önkéntesek műveletei felett.

Ez a kérdés lesz tehát a világ többi kormányzata, rendvédelme és katonasága számára feladva: hogyan lehet viszonyulni egy értékalapú csoportképződéshez a kibertérben? Érdemes ezt fenntartani és táplálni, vagy éppen ellenkezőleg, veszélyesnek tekintendőek a demokráciákra, ahogy erre az NSA kiberigazgatója májusi nyilatkozatában utalt?

Ezért javasolt – de lege ferenda –, hogy a közpolitikai tervezés és szervezeti képességek ennek megfelelően legyenek igazítva az új valósághoz, figyelembe véve e csoportok képességeit, volatilitását és értékvezérelt jellegét.

Összefoglalás. A tanulmány arra a kérdésre keresi a választ, hogy milyen biztonsági aggályokat jelent az, hogy az online platformok diskurzusát egyre nagyobb mértékben mesterséges intelligencia (MI) ellenőrzi. A kérdés megválaszolásához röviden bemutatja a téma szakirodalmának és a releváns empirikus kutatások eredményeit, valamint a legfontosabb értelmezési kereteket és fogalmakat. Megállapítja, hogy az online diskurzusok MI általi moderálásának vonatkozásában meghatározhatók egyrészt belülről kifelé, másrészt pedig kívülről befelé irányuló biztonsági aggályok és fenyegetések. A belülről kifelé irányuló fenyegetések az MI gyakorlati működése, így pedig a diskurzust befolyásoló szerepe okán jelentkeznek, a kívülről befelé irányuló fenyegetések pedig az MI mögött álló emberek döntéseiből adódnak.

Summary. The premise of this study is that online platforms and other public spaces in cyberspace can provide a framework for citizens to discuss issues affecting society as a whole or wider groups in society, contributing to the strengthening of democratic processes. The study seeks to answer the question of what security concerns are posed by the fact that the discourse of online platforms is increasingly moderated by artificial intelligence. To answer this question, the study briefly presents the results of the Hungarian and international literature on the topic and relevant empirical research, as well as reviews the theoretical, conceptual and interpretive frameworks whose presentation and conceptualization of relevant concepts are essential for processing the topic. It introduces the concepts of online platform, online discourse and moderation, and demonstrates applications of artificial intelligence in content moderation, with particular reference to related security concerns and their interpretation. The study then reviews the aspects related to the moderation of the discourse on online platforms by artificial intelligence that may also broaden the horizons of the security interpretation of the issue. The study finds that in connection with the moderation of online discourses by artificial intelligence, threats can be identified in two directions: in the form of “inside out” and in the form of “outside in” security concerns and threats. In the first case, the “inside out” threats are factors which arise from the practical operation of artificial intelligence and thus from its role in influencing discourse. In such way these “inside out” threats can also endanger the world beyond the discourses on online platforms, such as society, politics or even the economy. In the second case, the risks associated with the operation of artificial intelligence in terms of “outside-in” threats are not due to the built-in flaw of the algorithm, i.e. the uniqueness of its operation. In this case, the threats come from the decisions of the owners, developers, managers of artificial intelligence, the people behind artificial intelligence. The study concludes that in the moderation of discourse in artificial intelligence-based decision-making systems, such as online platforms, it is not enough to base accountability on platform conscience and self-restraint. It is absolutely necessary to subject platforms that use artificial intelligence in content moderation to a higher level of external and objective control, and in this connection to create a legal interpretation framework that defines the main guidelines for discourses moderated by artificial intelligence on online platforms and also enforces these guidelines.