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Both sides of the story: Addiction is not a pastime activity

Commentary on: Scholars’ open debate paper on the World Health Organization ICD-11 Gaming Disorder proposal (Aarseth et al.)

Journal of Behavioral Addictions
Authors:
Kai W. Müller
and
Klaus Wölfling

The proposed inclusion of Internet gaming disorder (IGD) into the upcoming ICD-11 has caused mixed reactions. Having a sound diagnostic framework for defining this new phenomenon has been applauded but concerns have risen regarding overpathologizing a mere pastime activity. The review by Aarseth et al. (2016) provides a fine but one-sided impression on IGD. What has been totally left out in the argumentation is the clinical perspective. Although the concerns depicted must not be ignored, the conclusion provided by the authors is reflecting quite subjective speculations while objectivity would rather be needful.

Open access

Background and aims

Behavioral addictions and bipolar disorders have a certain probability of co-occurrence. While the presence of a manic episode has been defined as an exclusion criterion for gambling disorder, no such exclusion has been formulated for Internet addiction.

Methods

A clinical sample of 368 treatment seekers presenting with excessive to addictive Internet use was screened for bipolar spectrum disorders using the Mood Disorder Questionnaire. Psychopathology was assessed by the Symptom Checklist 90R and a clinical interview was administered to screen for comorbid disorders.

Results

Comorbid bipolar disorders were more frequent in patients meeting criteria for Internet addiction (30.9%) than among the excessive users (5.6%). This subgroup showed heightened psychopathological symptoms, including substance use disorders, affective disorders and personality disorders. Further differences were found regarding frequency of Internet use regarding social networking sites and online-pornography.

Discussion

Patients with Internet addiction have a heightened probability for meeting criteria of bipolar disorders. It is not possible to draw conclusions regarding the direction of this association but it is recommended to implement screening for bipolar disorders in patients presenting with Internet addiction.

Conclusion

Similar to gambling disorder, it might prove necessary to subsume bipolar disorders as an exclusion criterion for the future criteria of Internet addiction.

Open access

Background and aims

Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and other Internet-related disorders (IRDs) have become growing health concerns in our today’s lives. Based on defined diagnostic criteria, IGD has been recognized as a condition for further research in the DSM-5; however, other IRDs have been excluded. Since the release of the DSM-5, representativeness and appropriateness of the nine diagnostic criteria have been debated. Although some first evidence has been published to evaluate these criteria, our knowledge is still limited. Thus, the purpose of this study was to provide data on the clinical validity of the DSM-5 criteria for IGD and other types of IRD. We were also interested in examining the additional diagnostic validity of craving that is currently not being considered in the DSM-5.

Methods

Analyses on a sample of n = 166 treatment seekers for IRDs were performed. The clinician’s diagnosis was used as a main reference for determining the DSM criteria’s diagnostic performance. Secondary criteria (depression and anxiety) were defined as indicators for the construct validity.

Results

The overall diagnostic accuracy ranged between 76.6% for deceiving and 92% for loss of control and craving. Considerable differences occurred in the degree of sensitivity and specificity between the single criteria. No particular differences were found for the applicability of the criteria to other forms of IRDs.

Discussion and conclusions

Our results confirm the validity of the DSM criteria. However, the diagnostic utility of the criterion escaping aversive moods is critically discussed. Considering craving as an additional diagnostic indicator might be recommendable.

Open access

Background and aims

Gambling disorder is a significant public health concern. Especially, male minors have been shown to gamble in a problematic way, despite legal prohibitions.

Methods

We examined representative samples of students aged from 12 to 18 years (N = 9,309) in two German federal states to provide prevalence data and clinical description of risk factors for problematic gambling.

Results

We found that about 40% of the adolescents reported engaging in gambling activities within the past 12 months and found prevalence rates of 1.7% and 2.2% for problematic gambling. Especially, use of online gambling and slot machines was found to be related to problematic gambling. Male adolescents with a migration background were of higher risk for problematic gambling and psychopathological symptoms were significantly elevated among that group.

Discussion

The results indicate that participation in gambling activities is common among underaged adolescents and that prevalence of problematic gambling exceeds rates of adults. Similarly, problematic gambling is associated with increased psychopathological strain.

Conclusion

Given that a high proportion of adult gamblers report having started gambling in adolescents, our data emphasize the need for prevention and early intervention strategies for problematic gambling.

Open access
Journal of Behavioral Addictions
Authors:
Kai W. Müller
,
Michael Dreier
,
Manfred E. Beutel
,
Christian Ruckes
,
Anil Batra
,
Karl Mann
,
Michael Musalek
, and
Klaus Wölfling

Abstract

Objective

According to ICD-11 gaming disorder is currently defined as a behavioral addiction. While our understanding of crucial aspects of this new condition including other subtypes of internet use disorders is growing, less is known about treatment strategies and their effectiveness. Particularly, dimensions of life satisfaction and their meaning for internet use disorders are poorly investigated. The aim of this study was addressing the role of life satisfaction dimensions in a randomized controlled trial. We examined life satisfaction as an additional treatment outcome and investigated in how far life satisfaction is predictive for symptom reduction and related to personality traits.

Methods

A multicenter randomized controlled trial with three measure points (baseline, post-treatment, 6-month follow-up) was conducted based on N = 143 patients aged 17 and above meeting diagnostic criteria for internet use disorders. A cognitive-behavioral disorder specific intervention was applied in n = 72 and compared to a wait list control (n = 71). Endpoints included symptoms of internet use disorders, psychosocial functioning, and life satisfaction. Personality traits were assessed as moderating factors.

Results

Life satisfaction (η 2 = 0.106) and health satisfaction (η 2 = 0.173) significantly increased in the intervention group with large effect sizes. Decreasing symptoms of internet use disorders at follow-up were predicted by life satisfaction at post-treatment (ß = −0.51) with extraversion (B = 1.606) and openness (B = 2.069) moderating this association.

Conclusion

Life satisfaction yields additional value as a secondary treatment outcome in internet use disorders and can be therapeutically addressed in order to stabilize treatment effects in the long run. Our study indicates that existing treatment strategies might benefit from explicitly addressing and enhancing psychosocial resources in order to prevent relapses in patients.

Open access

Abstract

Rationale

As a result of concerns about predominantly online behavioral addictions, an increasing number of systematic reviews and meta-analyses (SRMA) of treatment interventions for internet use disorders (IUD) are being recorded. This review was designed to (a) systematically identify the evidence base of SRMA and to (b) critically appraise the quality of reporting according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines.

Methods

Four databases were searched until August 2022 to systematically identify SRMA. PRISMA indicators were evaluated on a three-level response format to obtain an overall score operationalizing the quality of reporting (score range: 0–84). Additionally, the percentage of adherence to the PRISMA indicators was calculated.

Results

Reporting quality of 23 SRMA, comprising 12 systematic reviews and 11 meta-analyses was evaluated. Quality scores ranged from 25 to 77 (M: 52.91; SD: 17.46). Results of the critical appraisal revealed deviations from the PRISMA indicators, including missing information on (a) registration of a study protocol, (b) statistical synthesis methods (c) evaluation of certainty of evidence, and (d) risk of bias assessment. Eleven (47.83%) of the SRMAs partially adhered, and twelve (52.17%) completely adhered to the PRISMA indicators.

Conclusion

This first critical appraisal on the reporting quality of SRMA on treatment interventions for IUD highlights limitations of the evidence base. Inadequate reporting compromises the practical utility and validity of SRMA and may complicate ongoing efforts of consensus on evidence-based interventions for IUD. Future research should focus on sufficient and transparent reporting of the methodological approach.

Open access

Abstract

Background and aims

With the inclusion of gaming disorder in the ICD-11, diagnostic criteria were introduced for this relatively new disorder. These criteria may also be applied to other potential specific Internet-use disorders, which may be classified in ICD-11 as other disorders due to addictive behaviors, such as online buying-shopping disorder, online pornography-use disorder, social-networks-use disorder, and online gambling disorder. Due to the heterogeneity in existing instruments, we aimed to develop a consistent and economic measure of major types of (potential) specific Internet-use disorders based on ICD-11 criteria for gaming disorder.

Methods

The new 11-item Assessment of Criteria for Specific Internet-use Disorders (ACSID-11) measures five behavioral addictions with the same set of items by following the principles of WHO’s ASSIST. The ACSID-11 was administered to active Internet users (N = 985) together with an adaptation of the Ten-Item Internet Gaming Disorder Test (IGDT-10) and screeners for mental health. We used Confirmatory Factor Analyses to analyze the factor structure of ACSID-11.

Results

The assumed four-factorial structure was confirmed and was superior to the unidimensional solution. This applied to gaming disorder and to the other specific Internet-use disorders. ACSID-11 scores correlated with IGDT-10 as well as with the measures of psychological distress.

Discussion and Conclusions

The ACSID-11 seems to be suitable for the consistent assessment of (potential) specific Internet-use disorders based on ICD-11 diagnostic criteria for gaming disorder. The ACSID-11 may be a useful and economic instrument for studying various behavioral addictions with the same items and improving comparability.

Open access
Journal of Behavioral Addictions
Authors:
Charlotte Markert
,
Florian Storz
,
Sarah Golder
,
Johanna Rechmann
,
Julian A. Rubel
,
Christopher Lalk
,
Rabea Vogt
,
Julia A. Glombiewski
,
David Braun
,
Christiane A. Pané-Farré
,
Tanja Michael
,
Hannah K. Mattheus
,
Nanne Dominick
,
Klaus Wölfling
,
Wolfgang Lutz
,
Jana Schaffrath
,
Ulrich Stangier
,
Schahryar Kananian
,
Dirk Strüwing
,
Doerthe Klingelhöfer
,
Frederik Valbert
,
Anja Neumann
,
Bertram Walter
, and
Rudolf Stark

Abstract

Background and aims

For the first time, the ICD-11 provides the diagnosis compulsive sexual behavior disorder (CSBD) that can be assigned for pornography use disorder (PUD). This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of PUD and associated consequences in Germany, to identify the psychotherapy demand among likely PUD (lPUD) cases and the treatment supply in different psychotherapeutic settings, to survey psychotherapists' level of expertise regarding PUD, and to identify predictors for psychotherapy demand.

Methods

Four studies were conducted: 1. Online study in the general population (n = 2070; m = 48.9%, f = 50.8%, d = 0.2%), 2. Survey among practicing psychotherapists (n = 983), 3. Survey of psychotherapists in psychotherapeutic outpatient clinics (n = 185), 4. Interviews with psychotherapeutic inpatient clinics (n = 28).

Results

The estimated prevalence of lPUD in the online study was 4.7% and men were 6.3 times more often affected than women. Compared to individuals without PUD, individuals with lPUD more often indicated negative consequences in performance-related areas. Among lPUD cases, 51.2% of men and 64.3% of women were interested in a specialized PUD treatment. Psychotherapists reported 1.2%–2.9% of lPUD cases among their patients. 43.2%–61.5% of psychotherapists stated to be poorly informed about PUD. Only 7% of psychotherapeutic inpatient clinics provided specific treatments to patients with PUD. While, among other factors, negative consequences attributed to lPUD were predictive for psychotherapy demand, weekly pornography consumption, subjective well-being, and religious attachment were not.

Discussion and conclusions

Although PUD occurs quite often in Germany, availability of mental health care services for PUD is poor. Specific PUD treatments are urgently needed.

Open access

Including gaming disorder in the ICD-11: The need to do so from a clinical and public health perspective

Commentary on: A weak scientific basis for gaming disorder: Let us err on the side of caution (van Rooij et al., 2018)

Journal of Behavioral Addictions
Authors:
Hans-Jürgen Rumpf
,
Sophia Achab
,
Joël Billieux
,
Henrietta Bowden-Jones
,
Natacha Carragher
,
Zsolt Demetrovics
,
Susumu Higuchi
,
Daniel L. King
,
Karl Mann
,
Marc Potenza
,
John B. Saunders
,
Max Abbott
,
Atul Ambekar
,
Osman Tolga Aricak
,
Sawitri Assanangkornchai
,
Norharlina Bahar
,
Guilherme Borges
,
Matthias Brand
,
Elda Mei-Lo Chan
,
Thomas Chung
,
Jeff Derevensky
,
Ahmad El Kashef
,
Michael Farrell
,
Naomi A. Fineberg
,
Claudia Gandin
,
Douglas A. Gentile
,
Mark D. Griffiths
,
Anna E. Goudriaan
,
Marie Grall-Bronnec
,
Wei Hao
,
David C. Hodgins
,
Patrick Ip
,
Orsolya Király
,
Hae Kook Lee
,
Daria Kuss
,
Jeroen S. Lemmens
,
Jiang Long
,
Olatz Lopez-Fernandez
,
Satoko Mihara
,
Nancy M. Petry
,
Halley M. Pontes
,
Afarin Rahimi-Movaghar
,
Florian Rehbein
,
Jürgen Rehm
,
Emanuele Scafato
,
Manoi Sharma
,
Daniel Spritzer
,
Dan J. Stein
,
Philip Tam
,
Aviv Weinstein
,
Hans-Ulrich Wittchen
,
Klaus Wölfling
,
Daniele Zullino
, and
Vladimir Poznyak

The proposed introduction of gaming disorder (GD) in the 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) has led to a lively debate over the past year. Besides the broad support for the decision in the academic press, a recent publication by van Rooij et al. (2018) repeated the criticism raised against the inclusion of GD in ICD-11 by Aarseth et al. (2017). We argue that this group of researchers fails to recognize the clinical and public health considerations, which support the WHO perspective. It is important to recognize a range of biases that may influence this debate; in particular, the gaming industry may wish to diminish its responsibility by claiming that GD is not a public health problem, a position which maybe supported by arguments from scholars based in media psychology, computer games research, communication science, and related disciplines. However, just as with any other disease or disorder in the ICD-11, the decision whether or not to include GD is based on clinical evidence and public health needs. Therefore, we reiterate our conclusion that including GD reflects the essence of the ICD and will facilitate treatment and prevention for those who need it.

Open access
Journal of Behavioral Addictions
Authors:
Rudolf Stark
,
Charlotte Markert
,
Sarah Golder
,
Rhea Psarros
,
Julian P. Discher
,
Said Khatib
,
Julia Metzger
,
Sebastian Palmer
,
Johanna Rechmann
,
Florian Storz
,
Bertram Walter
,
Sarah Allard
,
Stephanie Antons
,
Marta Bledzka
,
Matthias Brand
,
Sandra Dörrenbächer
,
Julia Englisch
,
Thilo Friehs
,
Katja Da Cunha Gonçalves
,
Anke Haberkamp
,
Mila Hall
,
Schahryar Kananian
,
Pascal Kemmerer
,
Doerthe Klingelhöfer
,
Wolfgang Lutz
,
Christiane A. Melzig
,
Tanja Michael
,
Anja Neumann
,
Silke Neusser
,
Anja Niemann
,
Michael Odenthal
,
Julian Rubel
,
Sarah Schlierenkamp
,
Christian Speckemeier
,
Luisa Ünlü
,
Rabea Vogt
,
Klaus Wölfling
,
Wiebke Zachariassen
,
Gerrit zur Hausen
, and
Christine Heinz

Abstract

Background

The introduction of Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder (CSBD) into the 11th International Classification of Diseases has raised expectations for better treatment options for CSBD. Furthermore, the treatment demand has increased, particularly for pornography use disorder (PUD), a subtype of CSBD. Presumably due to the easy access to Internet pornography an increasing prevalence of PUD is observed. Consequently, providing tailored and effective treatment is essential.

Methods

This article provides an overview of the manualized short-term PornLoS Treatment Program (Pornografienutzungsstörung effektiv behandeln– Leben ohne Suchtdruck; translation: Treating pornography use disorder effectively - life without craving). The program combines 24 individual and 6 group psychotherapy sessions with an interdisciplinary approach by offering a novel treatment framework. This includes, e.g., a mobile app, establishment of self-help groups, and access to other social services such as couple counseling. The cognitive-behavioral treatment program contains interventions addressing psychoeducation, cue exposure, impulse control, cognitive restructuring, emotional regulation, and relapse management.

We here also describe the study protocol of an ongoing four-arm randomized controlled trial. The aim is to test two variants of the PornLoS Treatment Program differing with respect to their treatment goal (abstinence or reduced pornography use) against cognitive-behavioral treatment as usual and against a waitlist control group. The primary outcome is the absence of a PUD diagnosis at the end of therapy. The total target sample size will comprise n = 316 patients with PUD across eight study sites.

Results

The results will be presented at international conferences and published in a scientific peer-reviewed journal.

Open access