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- Author or Editor: Sonya Faber x
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Abstract
Background
Hypotheses surrounding the etiology of depressive disorders encompass a wide range of biological changes that can occur in a depressed individual, from gene variations to epigenetic modifications and not only serotonergic mechanisms. Once again, the therapy response of the patient to antidepressants is connected to modifications in the epigenetic regulation of genes within the serotonergic system. The persistence of depressive symptoms points to the possibility that stable molecular adaptations in the brain, particularly at the epigenetic level, may be involved.
Methods
Narrative review to first, discuss the historical evidence behind how serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) signaling and its associated actors are involved in various biological processes and second, examine the role of ketamine as one of the newer treatments for depression.
Results
There is increasing evidence that responses to psychotherapy for mood disorders are correlated with epigenetic alterations. Although therapy response appears to be associated with epigenetic changes in genes regulating the serotonergic system, there are multiple lines of research that provide additional data implicating epigenetic alterations in the glutamatergic system. Also, the epigenetic regulation of target genes along the HPA axis are becoming more intriguing in linking mood disorders with environmental stressors, and warrant a closer look. Recent research suggests that ketamine's antidepressant effects may be linked to epigenetic alterations. Considering the multiple studies linking BDNF with depression, further exploration of its relation with ketamine in the context of epigenetic signaling is warranted.
Conclusion
Understanding how and to what extent epigenetic mechanisms change gene expression and how these changes are influenced by environmental stressors may eventually allow mental health professionals to better understand the biological basis of depression as well as to gauge the efficacy, onset, durability and duration of therapies to treat mood disorders. Moreover, understanding the relation between serotonergic neurotransmission and epigenetic mechanisms of how these may be modified by ketamine should lead us to a greater knowledge of their therapeutic potential.
Abstract
Background
Few studies have assessed the epidemiology of hallucinogenic substance use among racial and ethnic groups of varying age cohorts. Use of psychedelic substances may differ among people of color (POC), due to factors such as stigma and discriminatory drug enforcement practices against POC. The lack of inclusion of POC in psychedelic research further underscores the importance of identifying differences in use among racial/ethnic groups and age cohorts.
Methods
Data from the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) was used for this analysis (N = 56,313, unweighted), representative of the non-institutionalized U.S. population. Proportions of lifetime hallucinogen use by race/ethnicity were compared. Proportions of past year rates of use were compared to examine differences by race/ethnicity and age cohort.
Results
Approximately 15.9% of the U.S. population over 12 had used a hallucinogen at some point in their lifetime and 2.0% had used in the past year. Lifetime hallucinogen use was most prevalent among non-Hispanic White and multi-racial individuals, while Black/African Americans reported the lowest rates of use. White and multi-racial groups also reported the highest proportions of past year use among 12–34 year olds, and White individuals reported the highest proportions among 35–49 year olds. Hispanic individuals reported higher proportions of use among the 12–17 cohort, but lower proportions among the 26–49 year old cohorts. Black/African Americans reported the lowest rates of past year use among the 12–25 year old cohorts. 50+ and older cohorts reported the lowest rates of hallucinogen use in the past year.
Limitations
Data is cross-sectional and self-reported. “Race” is a social construction is subject to change over time, and NSDUH ethnoracial categories are limited. Institutionalized populations are not included in the study.
Conclusions
Significant differences in hallucinogen use among ethnoracial groups by substance and age cohorts were observed. Findings from this work may inform education, interventions, and therapeutic psychedelic research.