There are documents that confirm the cycle of bacterial transmission between patients, staff, and the inanimate environment. The environment may have more effect on intensive care units (ICUs), because the patients who require intensive care have unstable clinical conditions and are more sensitive to infections. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of bacteria in air and inanimate surface in the ICUs and to compare the microbial levels to standard levels.Air and inanimate surface in the four ICUs of a teaching hospital underwent weekly surveillance by means of air sampler and swabs for a period of six-month. Total bacterial counts were evaluated onto trypticase soy agar and mannitol salt agar (MSA).A total of 725 samples [air (168) and inanimate surfaces (557)] were collected. The total mean ± SD CFU/m3 of airborne bacteria in all of the ICUs were 115.93 ± 48.04. The most common bacteria in air of the ICUs were Gram-positive cocci (84.2%). The total mean ± SD airborne of Staphylococcus aureus was 12.10±8.11 CFU/m3. The highest levels of S. aureus contamination were found in ventilators and bed ledges. More suitable disinfection of hospital environments and monthly rotation in utilization of the various disinfectant agents are needed for the prevention of airborne and inanimate transmission of S. aureus.
Jarvis, W. R.: The epidemiology of colonization. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 17, 47–52 (1996).
Jarvis W. R. , 'The epidemiology of colonization ' (1996 ) 17 Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. : 47 -52.
Manning, M. L., Archibald, L. K., Bell, L. B., Banerjee, A. N., Jarvis, W. R.: Serratia marcescens transmission in a pediatric intensive care unit: a multifactional occurrence. Am. J. Infect. Control 29, 115–119 (2001).
Jarvis W. R. , 'Serratia marcescens transmission in a pediatric intensive care unit: a multifactional occurrence ' (2001 ) 29 Am. J. Infect. Control : 115 -119.
Haddad, S. H., Arabi, Y. M., Memish, Z. A., Al-Shimemeri, A. A.: Nosocomial infective endocarditis in critically ill patients: a report of three cases and review of the literature. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 8, 210–216 (2004).
Al-Shimemeri A. A. , 'Nosocomial infective endocarditis in critically ill patients: a report of three cases and review of the literature ' (2004 ) 8 Int. J. Infect. Dis. : 210 -216.
Tablan, O. C., Anderson, L. J., Besser, R., Bridges, C., Hajjeh, R.: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated pneumonia: recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. MMWR Recomm. Rep. 53, 1–36 (2003).
Hajjeh R. , 'Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guidelines for preventing healthcare-associated pneumonia: recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee ' (2003 ) 53 MMWR Recomm. Rep. : 1 -36.
Datta, R., Platt, R., Yokoe, D. S., Huang, S. S.: Environmental cleaning intervention and risk of acquiring multidrug-resistant organisms from prior room occupants. Arch. Intern. Med. 171, 491–494 (2011).
Huang S. S. , 'Environmental cleaning intervention and risk of acquiring multidrug-resistant organisms from prior room occupants ' (2011 ) 171 Arch. Intern. Med. : 491 -494.
Nesa, D., Lortholary, J., Bouakline, A.: Comparative performance of impactor air samplers for quantification of fungal contamination. J. Hosp. Infect. 47, 149–155 (2001).
Bouakline A. , 'Comparative performance of impactor air samplers for quantification of fungal contamination ' (2001 ) 47 J. Hosp. Infect. : 149 -155.
Lee, K. S., Bartlett, K. H., Brauer, M.: A field comparison of four samplers for enumerating fungal aerosols I sampling characteristics. Indoor Air 14, 360–366 (2004).
Brauer M. , 'A field comparison of four samplers for enumerating fungal aerosols I sampling characteristics ' (2004 ) 14 Indoor Air : 360 -366.
Rolandi, L., Lodola, L., Guglielminetti, M., Caretta, G., Azzaretti, G.: Evaluation of airborne particulate and fungi in critical hospital care units. Toxicol. Lett. 95, 226 (1998).
Azzaretti G. , 'Evaluation of airborne particulate and fungi in critical hospital care units ' (1998 ) 95 Toxicol. Lett. : 226 -.
Jaffal, A. A., Nsanze, H., Bener, A., Ameen, A. S., Banat, I. M., Mogheth, A. A.: Hospital airborne microbial pollution in a desert country. Environ. Int. 23, 167–172 (1997).
Mogheth A. A. , 'Hospital airborne microbial pollution in a desert country ' (1997 ) 23 Environ. Int. : 167 -172.
Li, C. S., Hou, P. A.: Bioaerosol characteristics in hospital clean rooms. Sci. Total Environ. 305, 169–176 (2003).
Hou P. A. , 'Bioaerosol characteristics in hospital clean rooms ' (2003 ) 305 Sci. Total Environ. : 169 -176.
Noble, W. C.: Microbiology of Human Skin, 2nd Edition. Lloyd-Luke, London, 1981.
Noble W. C. , '', in Microbiology of Human Skin , (1981 ) -.
Lidwell, O. M.: Some aspects of transfer and acquisition of Staphylococcus aureus in hospitals. In: Macdonald, A., Smith, G. (eds): The Staphylococci. Proceedings of the Alexander Ogston Centennial Conference. Aberdeen University Press, Aberdeen, 1981, pp. 175–202.
Lidwell O. M. , '', in The Staphylococci. Proceedings of the Alexander Ogston Centennial Conference , (1981 ) -.
Wertheim, H. F. L., Melles, D. C., Vos, M. C. et al.: The role of nasal carriage in Staphylococcus aureus infections. Lancet Infect. Dis. 5, 751–762 (2005).
Vos M. C. , 'The role of nasal carriage in Staphylococcus aureus infections ' (2005 ) 5 Lancet Infect. Dis. : 751 -762.
European Communities, Good Manufacturing Practices — Medicinal Products for Human and Veterinary Use (The rules governing medicinal products in the European Union). Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 1998.
'', in Good Manufacturing Practices — Medicinal Products for Human and Veterinary Use (The rules governing medicinal products in the European Union) , (1998 ) -.
Mahon, C. R., Lehman, D. C., Manuselis, G.: Text Book of Diagnostic Microbiology, 3rd Edition., Elsevier Inc., Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2007, pp. 367–381.
Manuselis G. , '', in Text Book of Diagnostic Microbiology , (2007 ) -.
Fatholahzadeh B., Emaneini, M., Feizabadi, M. M., Sedaghat, H., Aligholi, M., Taherikalani, M.: Characterisation of genes encoding aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes among meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from two hospitals in Tehran, Iran. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 33, 264–265 (2009).
Taherikalani M. , 'Characterisation of genes encoding aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes among meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from two hospitals in Tehran ' (2009 ) 33 Iran. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents : 264 -265.
Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), Performance Q2 standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing; twenty-first informational supplement M100-S21, Pennsylvania, 2011, pp. 68–76.
Sehulster, L. M., Chinn, R. Y. W., Arduino, M. J., Carpenter, J., Donlan, R., Ashford, D.: Guidelines for environmental infection control in health-care facilities. Recommendations from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). American Society for Healthcare, Chicago, 2003.
Ashford D. , '', in Recommendations from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) , (2003 ) -.
Schaal, K. P.: Medical and microbiological problems arising from airborne infection in hospitals. J. Hosp. Infect. 18, 451–459 (1991).
Schaal K. P. , 'Medical and microbiological problems arising from airborne infection in hospitals ' (1991 ) 18 J. Hosp. Infect. : 451 -459.
Perdelli, F., Dallera, M., Cristin, M. L., Sartini, M., Ottria, G., Spagnolo, A. M., Orlando, P.: A new microbiological problem in intensive care units: environmental contamination by MRSA with reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 211, 213–218 (2007).
Orlando P. , 'A new microbiological problem in intensive care units: environmental contamination by MRSA with reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides ' (2007 ) 211 Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health : 213 -218.
Nunes, Z. G., Martins, A. S., Altoe, A. L., Nishikawa, M. M., Leite, M. O., Aguiar, P. F., Fracalanzza, S. E.: Indoor air microbiological evaluation of offices, hospitals, industries and shopping centers. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 100, 351–357 (2005).
Fracalanzza S. E. , 'Indoor air microbiological evaluation of offices, hospitals, industries and shopping centers ' (2005 ) 100 Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro : 351 -357.
Shiomori, T., Miyamoto, H., Makishima, K.: Significance of Airborne Transmission of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Unit. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 127, 644–689 (2001).
Makishima K. , 'Significance of Airborne Transmission of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Unit ' (2001 ) 127 Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. : 644 -689.
Ortiz, G., Yagüe, G., Segovia, M., Catalán, V.: A study of air microbe levels in different areas of a hospital. Curr. Microbiol. 59, 53–58 (2009).
Catalán V. , 'A study of air microbe levels in different areas of a hospital ' (2009 ) 59 Curr. Microbiol. : 53 -58.
Lacey, J., Dutkiewicz, J.: Bioaerosols and occupational lung disease. J. Aerosol. Sci. 25, 1371–1404 (1994).
Dutkiewicz J. , 'Bioaerosols and occupational lung disease ' (1994 ) 25 J. Aerosol. Sci. : 1371 -1404.
Li, C. S., Hou, P. A.: Bioaerosol characteristics in hospital clean rooms. Sci. Total Environ. 305, 169–176 (2003).
Hou P. A. , 'Bioaerosol characteristics in hospital clean rooms ' (2003 ) 305 Sci. Total Environ. : 169 -176.
Arias, C. A., Reyes, J. M., Zu’niga, L., Corte’s, C., Cruz, C. L., Rico, D., Panesso and Columbian Antimicrobial Resistance Group (RESCOL): Multicentre surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in enterococci and staphylococci from Colombian hospitals, 2001–2002. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 51, 169–176 (2003).
Rico D. , 'Panesso and Columbian Antimicrobial Resistance Group (RESCOL): Multicentre surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in enterococci and staphylococci from Colombian hospitals, 2001–2002 ' (2003 ) 51 J. Antimicrob. Chemother. : 169 -176.
Sader, H. S., Streit, J. M., Fritsche, T. R., Jones, R. N.: Antimicrobial susceptibility of Gram-positive bacteria isolated from European medical centers: Results of the Daptomycin surveillance programme (2002–2004). Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12, 844–852 (2006).
Jones R. N. , 'Antimicrobial susceptibility of Gram-positive bacteria isolated from European medical centers: Results of the Daptomycin surveillance programme (2002–2004) ' (2006 ) 12 Clin. Microbiol. Infect. : 844 -852.
Zhang, K., McClure, J. A., Naimi, T. S., LeDell, K. H., Como-Sabetti, K., Borchardt, S. M., Boxrud, D. J., Etienne, J., Johnson, S. K., Vandenesch, F., Fridkin, S., O’Boyle, C., Danila, R. N., Lynfield, R.: Comparison of communityand health care-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. JAMA 290, 2976–2984 (2003).
Lynfield R. , 'Comparison of communityand health care-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection ' (2003 ) 290 JAMA : 2976 -2984.