Introduction

Language learning, a journey deeply intertwined with personal growth and cultural understanding, is heavily influenced by motivation (Csizér & Kormos, 2009; Dörnyei, 2009; Gardner, 1985). This concept extends beyond simple ambition or desire, but it is a multifaceted and dynamic construct that has long fascinated educators and psychologists worldwide (Dörnyei, 2001; Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021; Ushioda, 2012). Dörnyei and Ushioda (2021) described motivation in language learning as one of the most complex constructs in psychology, highlighting its evolving nature, which encompasses personal connections, the pursuit of an ideal self, and traditional motivational elements. The complexity of this concept can be found in several theoretical models like the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) (Dornyei, 2005, 2009), the socio-educational model (Gardner, 1985), and the self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), each offering unique insights into the essence of motivation.

The L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), a significant model in understanding language learning motivation, has been instrumental in this research. Developed by Dornyei (2005, 2009), this model identifies three core components: the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self, and the learning experience. This framework has been empirically tested and refined by various researchers, including Taguchi, Magid, and Papi (2009), who investigated its applicability alongside other variables such as Intrinsic, Instrumental, and Integrative Motivations, as well as Family Influences, Cultural Interests, and Attitudes Towards the L2 Community. Their findings, along with Dörnyei and Al-Hoorie's (2017) research, revealed that the patterns observed in Hungarian L2 motivation research, which had been influential for over two decades, also showed parallel patterns in other countries. This suggested a broader applicability of the L2 Motivational Self System, highlighting its relevance and utility in diverse linguistic and cultural contexts (Dörnyei & Al-Hoorie, 2017; Taguchi et al., 2009).

They also proposed redefining the base concept of Integrativeness in the L2MSS as the ‘Ideal L2 Self', which holds greater interpretive significance in foreign language learning contexts. Additionally, their findings revealed that instrumentality could be categorized into two constructs, “promotion” and “prevention”, depending on the degree of usage of external motivators. Their application of structural equation modelling validated the threefold character of the L2MSS and highlighted cross-cultural differences in educational settings. Although their methodology did not include stratified random sampling, the extensive samples from three significant nations lent credibility to their findings. Their work aligns with and builds upon the contributions of other scholars, such as Kormos and Csizér (2008), reinforcing the model's conclusions.

The evolving global context, marked by the rising prominence of English and a corresponding decrease in motivation to learn Languages Other Than English (LOTE), provides a significant backdrop for this study. According to the Tempus Public Foundation, which manages international education and training scholarship programs in Hungary, the number of international students studying in Hungary reached 38,422 in the 2019/2020 academic year, with a significant portion of these students participating in the Stipendium Hungaricum scholarship program, which mandates the study of the Hungarian language (Tempus Public Foundation, 2020). Additionally, the Stipendium Hungaricum scholarship has played a crucial role, as more than 10,000 international students are required to learn Hungarian for a full academic year since the fall semester of 2020 (Tempus Public Foundation, 2020a, 2020b). From Dörnyei's longitudinal survey (2005, 2009) to recent evaluations of the L2MSS, this article explores various aspects of motivation for learning Hungarian, along with the challenges encountered, such as a lack of local community support and language barriers (Dörnyei, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2009; Erturk & Luu, 2022).

To further develop this field, it is crucial to identify and explore unaddressed gaps within the Hungarian context. The initial motivational triggers that spark interest in learning Hungarian, combined with the influence of pedagogical strategies, both traditional and modern, on maintaining or enhancing motivation dispositions deeper this examination (Csizér & Kormos, 2009; Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021; Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008). The interplay between learner personality types and the effectiveness of motivational strategies is essential for investigation (Dornyei & Ryan, 2015; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012).

Our knowledge may also be deepened by considering the modest impacts of ancestry or familial heritage on linguistic motivation (Guardado, 2002; Noels, Pelletier, Clément, & Vallerand, 2003). International students' experiences, such as their interactions with unfamiliar cultural norms and customs, will likely impact their desire to learn Hungarian (Berry, 2005; Schumann, 1978). Identity formation can significantly influence students' language learning process, particularly when transitioning between their home culture and Hungarian culture (Kim, 2001; Norton, 2000).

The aim of this study is not only to investigate how students' motivational profiles are shaped by their integration process and the development of their social and personal identities, but also to contribute to the creation of more inclusive and varied language education programmes. Understanding these dynamics can create supportive learning environments that acknowledge and address the particular possibilities and problems experienced by international students. This study adds to the subject of language motivation as well as more general talks on intercultural education and student well-being in varied educational environments by including these elements (DeCapua & Wintergerst, 2005). The overall goal of this study is to increase the field's understanding of language learning motivation while also contributing to the creation of more inclusive and varied language education programmes.

Motivation for learning foreign languages

Motivation, a crucial element in psychology, is particularly complex in terms of foreign language learning (Dörnyei, 2005; Gardner, 1985). As Dörnyei and Ushioda (2021) emphasize, motivation in this context involves a multifaceted and evolving relationship. This relationship includes learners' interconnections (Amorati, 2019), their pursuit of an ideal self (Dörnyei, 2005, 2009), and traditional motivational elements (Gardner, 1985). Several theoretical models, such as the L2MSS (Dörnyei, 2005, 2009; Dörnyei & Németh, 2006), the socio-educational model (Gardner, 1985), and self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), attempt to unravel the core nature of motivation in language learning.

The influence of motivation on language acquisition goes far beyond simply mastering language skills. Research has shown that learners with high levels of motivation advance their linguistic abilities and gain a deeper cultural understanding of the language's native context, in this case, Hungarian (Hernández, 2010; Isabelli-García, Bown, Plews, & Dewey, 2018). This enriched learning experience deepens their connection to their ‘Ideal L2 Self', a concept central to Dörnyei's L2MSS, directing them further in their language learning journey (Dörnyei, 2019; Fryer & Roger, 2018).

Furthermore, motivation in language learning is not just a catalyst for linguistic proficiency, but a transformative force that shapes the learner's identity (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021). As learners progress, they undergo a metamorphosis, assimilating elements of the new language and culture into their identity (Norton, 2000). This process is about more than just learning a language, it's about becoming a part of the world that speaks the language. This identity-driven motivation is a powerful force that moulds the language learning experience, making it more meaningful and personally significant (Csizér & Kormos, 2009; Pavlenko, 2000).

The dynamic nature of motivation in language learning is not just a personal or academic pursuit in today's global landscape. In a world where multilingualism is increasingly valued, motivation has evolved to include global citizenship, intercultural competence, and participation in an interconnected society. This shift has led to a broader understanding of motivation, including the desire to acquire a language and the ambition to become part of a global community (Byram, 1997).

Additionally, cultural differences and learning habits significantly influence motivation for learning foreign languages, which creates distinct motivational dynamics among learners. Cultural contexts shape learners' attitudes towards language learning, often reflecting broader societal values and expectations. For instance, in collectivist cultures, such as those in East Asia, motivation is usually driven by social harmony and group success, which strongly emphasizes integrative motivation, where learners aim to integrate with the target language community (Gardner, 1985; Hofstede, 1980). On the other hand, in individualist cultures like those in Western Europe and North America, instrumental motivation, which focuses on personal achievements and career advancements, tends to be more prevalent (Dörnyei, 2005; Hofstede, 1980).

These cultural orientations also influence learning habits. Students from cultures with a high value on education and rigorous academic expectations may be more accustomed to rote learning and formal study methods, affecting their adaptability to communicative and interactive language teaching approaches commonly used in different educational contexts (Biggs, 1996). Additionally, family influences play a significant role in shaping motivation, with parental expectations often driving the motivation to succeed academically and linguistically (Pawlak, 2012). These cultural and habitual factors create a complex interplay that educators must consider to effectively support language learners, adapting motivational strategies to align with diverse cultural backgrounds and learning preferences.

Research questions

To address the objectives outlined in this study, the following research questions were formulated, guiding the investigation:

The first question, which measures the reliability of measurement scales in the Hungarian context aims to evaluate the effectiveness and accuracy of the tools used to measure motivation, ensuring they are suited to the specific cultural and educational dynamics present in Hungary.

The second question which is about the characteristics of motivational disposition seeks to uncover the unique motivational profiles of these students, exploring factors such as personal, professional, or instrumental motivations, the influence of cultural integration, and the impact of the educational environment on their language learning journey.

Research methods

In this research, we adopted explorative approach to investigate the language learning motivations among 203 international students in Hungary. This quantitative approach, focusing on numerical data collection and statistical analysis, offered a detailed understanding of the factors influencing language learning motivation among international students in Hungary.

Participants

The study's participant group consisted of 203 international students, all actively enrolled in higher education institutions across Hungary during the data collection period in 2020, who were learning Hungarian. This diverse group of participants was chosen to provide a broad perspective on the motivations of international students in learning the Hungarian language.

To ensure a better understanding of the participants' language proficiency, their self-reported language skills were evaluated using the guidelines set by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 32). The CEFR offers a standardized scale for describing language ability, from A1 for beginners to C2 for those who have achieved mastery. This framework was selected for its widespread recognition and precision in categorizing language proficiency levels (Council of Europe, 2001).

Participants have a gender split of 42.9% male (87 participants) and 57.1% female (116 participants). Age demographics were diverse, with (91) in the 18–25 range, (60) aged between 25–30, and (52) over 30 years old.

Also, the educational levels varied significantly, with undergraduates forming (63) of the group, while graduate (Master's) students had another (61). A smaller portion (10) were enrolled in one-tier master's programs. Those pursuing doctoral degrees (Ph.D./DLA) constituted (65), indicating a solid representation of advanced academic pursuits. The remaining participants were in preparatory programs (1) or specialization programs (3).

Specifically in this research, the first-year students were represented by (59) participants, the same as the second year (59) participants. The third year was represented by (37) participants, while in their fourth year were (25), and (23) in their fifth year.

In terms of academic fields, the majority (97) were from social sciences and humanities. Natural science and mathematics/computer science were represented by (37) and (29) participants. The remaining (40) were engaged in medicine-related studies, including dentistry, pharmacy, and physical therapy.

Regarding their duration of residence in Hungary, the study found that (40) participants had moved to Hungary less than six months before the survey. A group of (32) participants lived in the country for six months to a year. Following them, (51) participants had one to two years of residency. There were (47) participants who had lived in Hungary for two to four years, and (33) had resided there for more than four years.

The learning duration of the Hungarian language among participants was predominantly less than six months for the vast majority (183). A smaller group (18) had been learning for six months to a year, and an even smaller fraction (2) for one to two years.

Regarding language proficiency, most participants rated themselves as beginners (122), followed by those considered primary users (76). Only a small group (5) felt they had reached an independent user's lower level. The below presented Table 1, shows more detailed demographic distribution of the participants by their country of origin, native language and gender.

Results and discussion

The first part of the results addresses Research Question 1, focusing on the reliability of the scales measuring motivational disposition within the Hungarian context. The Cronbach's alpha internal consistency reliability coefficients were calculated for all the scales to assess their reliability. The results are presented in Table 2.

The Cronbach's alpha values indicated favourable reliability for most scales, significantly exceeding the commonly recommended threshold of 0.70 (Dörnyei, 2007). The only exception was the Integrativeness scale, which had a slightly lower coefficient of 0.66, approaching but not quite reaching the suggested benchmark. This suggests that while the scales are generally reliable for measuring motivational disposition among Hungarian language learners, the Integrativeness scale may require further refinement for optimal reliability.

Types of causal relationships

The exploration of causal relationships among the dimensions measured in this study was done through multiple regression analyses, employing a stepwise approach. In the first round, we used the dependent variable of the criterion measure scale, Motivated Learning Behavior. Intrinsic Motivation was used as the dependent variable during the second round. The Ideal Self was selected as the dependent variable in the third round of regression analyses. Finally, the Ought-to Self was employed as the dependent variable in the fourth round of regression analysis.

As seen in Table 6, the Ideal Self, Intrinsic Motivation, and Ought-to Self predict 44% of the Motivated Language Behavior of the students. The β values show that while the effect of the Ideal Self and Intrinsic Motivation is almost the same (0.34 vs. .32), the impact of the Ought-to Self is almost three times weaker (0.13).

Table 7 outlines the results of the second-round regression analysis, with Intrinsic Motivation as the dependent variable. In this analysis, Hungarian Language Culture positively impacts Intrinsic Motivation (0.22). The Ideal Self reveals a more substantial positive influence on Intrinsic Motivation, as indicated by its corresponding values (0.30). Integrativeness also positively predicts Intrinsic Motivation (0.22). Lastly, while positively impacting Intrinsic Motivation, the scale Attitudes present a relatively weaker effect correlation (0.14).  These four variables predict 52% of intrinsic motivation, and notably, the Ideal Self exhibits the most decisive influence.

Table 8 summarizes the results of the third-round regression analysis, where the dependent variable is the Ideal Self. The findings indicate that Instrumental Motivation, Intrinsic Motivation, and Hungarian Language Culture predict 58% of the participants' Ideal L2 Self. The Instrumental motivation variable exhibits a strong positive impact on the Ideal Self (0.41). Also, the Intrinsic Motivation variable demonstrates a significant favourable influence on the Ideal Self (0.28). Meanwhile, the Attitudes variable predicts the Ideal Self to a slightly weaker extent (0.24). All three variables have a statistically significant positive impact on the Ideal Self. However, Instrumental Motivation shows the strongest influence.

Table 9 highlights the outcomes of the fourth-round regression analysis, using the Ought-to Self as the dependent variable. The results show that 42% of the participants' Ought-to Self can be explained by these three variables: Family, Instrumental motivation, and Integrativeness. Family (0.35) shows the most substantial impact on the Ought-to Self. The Instrumental Motivation variable has a weaker positive effect (0.25) on the Ought-to Self (0.25). At the same time, The Integrativeness variable also correlates positively with the Ought-to Self, though this predictive power is weaker (0.20).

Conclusions, limitations and future possibilities

This exploratory study has provided valuable insights into international students' motivational characteristics and causal relationships underpinning the motivational disposition of the students learning the Hungarian language in Hungary. Employing these quantitative analysis methods provided a better understanding of the motivational dispositions of international students learning Hungarian. The findings were similar to those in the pilot study, suggesting that the mix of Intrinsic and Instrumental Motivations is crucial for fostering Motivated Learning Behavior (Stamenkovska et al., 2022).

The insights obtained from this multifaceted analysis contributed significantly to language motivation research, especially in Hungarian language learning among international students. The complex correlations among variables, such as the strong relationship between Instrumental motivation and the Ideal Self, underline the role of language as a tool for fulfilling future aspirations. Similarly, the associations between Hungarian Language Culture and Intrinsic Motivation explain the intrinsic rewards emerging from the desire to embrace a new culture through language. The detailed regression analyses further unravel the multifaceted connections between these motivational scales, indicating that the strongest motivators relate to self-oriented aspirations and future goals.

Despite the diverse participant profile and reliable scales, the study has limitations, such as potential self-report bias, a cross-sectional design providing only a snapshot in time, and further refinement of the scales. The participant group included various cultural backgrounds and learning habits, reflecting students' unique motivations and educational approaches from South Africa, Egypt, China, and Vietnam. For instance, students from collectivist cultures, such as those in Vietnam and the Philippines, may prioritize group harmony and social integration in their learning process, whereas those from individualist cultures, like South Africa, might focus more on personal achievement and career advancement. These cultural differences influence their Intrinsic and Instrumental Motivations, shaping their learning experiences and Attitudes towards language acquisition.

Additionally, varying educational practices, such as the emphasis on rote learning in some Asian countries versus more interactive and communicative methods in others, contribute to the diverse learning habits observed among the participants. However, rote learning has a different epistemology and reality versions than Western concepts and practices (Marton & Dall’Alba, 1996). This diversity enriches the study by offering a broad perspective on the motivational dynamics, yet it also challenges making generalized conclusions. Future research should segment participants into more homogeneous subgroups to better understand specific motivational trends and learning behaviours within each cultural context.

Since the fall semester of 2020, it has been obligatory for the Stipendium Hungaricum Scholarship holders to take a Hungarian language and culture course for a full year. This requirement introduces a unique dimension to the motivational factors, especially for those students who might have decided not to learn Hungarian otherwise. The obligation to study Hungarian under this scholarship can significantly influence their Ought-to Self and Instrumental Motivation, making it important variable in understanding their language learning motivation.

This study offers a distinct understanding of the factors that motivate international students to learn the language in Hungary while reflecting a dynamic interplay between personal interests, community engagement, future visions, and cultural appreciation. By recognizing and supporting these diverse sources of motivation, it becomes possible to develop a more engaging and effective language learning environment that corresponds with international students' multifaceted needs and desires.