Abstract
In his paper the author summarizes the research of Roman Pannonia in the recent decades, mainly after 1986 when Pavel Oliva edited his volume of the series Tabula Imperii Romani, He examined the most important historical and administrative events of the province. Kovács also delt with the new historical monographs that studied the entire history or administration of Pannonia and the most important towns. The author separately examined the new epigraphic works, corpora and the new inscribed finds. In the last part of his paper he delt with the new archaeological discoveries from Brigetio to Sirmium.
During his long life (1923–2021), Pavel Oliva dealt with Roman Pannonia several times.1 He published his monograph ʻPannonia and the onset of the Roman Empire’ in English in 1962 three years after its Czech version.2 In this volume he summarized the sources and the history of the province, especially the period of the Marcomannic wars under Marcus Aurelius' and Commodus' reign. This book can be used even today apart from the necessary Marxist conclusions of his age that was obligatory sixty years ago. I must emphasize that it can be used even if his basic Marxist concept on the importance and role of the slavery cannot be applied for Pannonia and the Roman Empire. Oliva published several other papers on Pannonia in the next decades. In 1986 together with a group of German, Austrian, Czech, and Slovak colleagues he published the Castra Regina–Vindobona–Carnuntum volume of the series Tabula Imperii Romani (M 33) that included all important sites of this part of the Roman Empire and the Northern Barbaricum, the land of the Quadi and Marcomanni in alphabetical order too.3 The work was initiated and edited by him. In the last decades of his career, he did not lose his interest in Pannonia,4 esp. the problem of the planned province Marcomannia at the very end of Marcus Aurelius' life,5 for instance he reviewed my monograph on Marcus Aurelius' famous rain miracle in the Eirene in 2011.6 Based on his interest in Pannonia, I deal with the Roman province (Fig. 1). In my paper, I intend to deal with the new results of the research of the province following 1986.
Roman Pannonia (after Mócsy, 1974)
Citation: Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 75, 1; 10.1556/072.2024.00011
Roman Pannonia belonged to the Danubian provinces of the Empire that was founded by Emperor Augustus and existed until the arrival of the Huns in the first half of fifth century AD.7 Originally, Pannonia together with its southern neighbour, Dalmatia were called province Illyricum that were divided latest under Tiberius' reign to Illyricum superius (Dalmatia) and inferius (Pannonia). The river Danube formed its natural border in the North and in the East. The name Pannonia is attested first only under Nero's reign (SEG 57, 1408).8 Pannonia was again divided around 106 AD into Pannonia inferior (with one legion at Aquincum/Budapest) and superior (with three legions at Brigetio/Komárom-Szőny, Carnuntum/Petronell, Vindobona/Vienna). Around 213, the territory of Brigetio was attached to Pannonia inferior. With its four legions and numerous auxiliary troops, Pannonia had a very important military role in the point of view of the safety of Rome and Italy. These Pannonian troops had also an important political role as several new emperors were acclaimed by Pannonians as they did in the case of Septimius Severus in 193 who was the governor of Upper Pannonia. Several soldier emperors of the third century were born in Pannonia as Emperor Decius. Several veteran colonies (as Savaria, Poetovio or Sirmium) and municipia were founded inside the province and the municipalization of the entire province (with minor exceptions) was finished latest under Hadrian's rule.9 The earlier Illyrian (Pannonian) native population in the South and the Celts (as the Boii in NW-Pannonia and the Eravisci in NE-Pannonia) in the Transdanubia in the North survived the Roman occupation and formed civitates peregrinae with their own tribal leaders, the principes.10 Their Romanization ended only at the end of the second century. The most important Barbarians near Pannonia were from the very beginnings the German Marcomanni and Quadi north of the Danube and the Iranian nomads, the Sarmatians in the Great Hungarian Plain between the provinces Pannonia and Dacia. Several wars and incursions were executed by them from the second century (e. g. in the years 117–119, 166–180, 258–260, 290–294, 323, 357–359 and 374–375 AD), the most serious ones were the Marcomann-Sarmatians wars of Emperor Marcus Aurelius between 166 and 180.11 Several emperors had to spend years in the province as Marcus Aurelius did. He wrote his philosophical work in Pannonia and the neighbouring Barbaricum and he also died in Vindobona in 180. The mixed population of the Roman province consisted of Pannonian and Celtic natives, North-Italian settlers, and veteran families from all parts of the empire. At the end of the second century, following the Marcomannic wars, several Oriental troops and their relatives came to Pannonia as e. g. the cohors I milliaria Hemesenorum that formed a Syrian and Oriental enclave at Intercisa/Dunaújváros.12 In the Severan period Pannonia had a prosperous period due to the financial support of the emperors for the Pannonian military, but during the military anarchy, several crises shook the province. For instance, it has become a widely known and used topos in the late Antique literature that Pannonia was lost or destroyed in the year 260 AD following two usurpations and a devastating Sarmatian and Quadic incursion.13
It is also well-known that the Pannonian provinces had a very turbulent history from the very end of the fourth century, and finally, all the provinces were abandoned by the Romans in the fifth and sixth centuries, but in different periods. Still under Diocletian's and Constantine's reigns, the two Pannoniae were divided into four provinces: the former Pannonia superior to Pannonia prima in the North and Savia, the former Pannonia inferior to Valeria in the North and Pannonia secunda with Sirmium. Following the administrative reform of the Roman Empire in the fourth century, the four Pannonian provinces became part of dioecesis Illyricum together with Dalmatia and Noricum (ripense and mediterraneum).14 The dioecesis was part of praefectura Illyrici or together with Africa belonged to the Italian prefecture controlled by the West (Praefectura Italiae, Africae et Illyrici). After Theodosius I's death, the latter division became permanent, i. e. Western-Illyricum (the dioecesis was called Pannonia or Illyricum) belonged to praefectura Italiae, Eastern-Illyricum (dioeceses Moesia/Dacia and Macedonia) survived as praefectura Illyrici controlled by Constantinople. This situation can be observed in the lists of the Notitia Dignitatum (Not. Dig. Occ. II,1–8, Or. III,1–6), but East Rome never gave its claim to Western Illyricum. In 437 a part of Illyricum, most probably province Pannonia II came under the control of Constantinople when Valentinian III and Theodosius II's daughter, Eudocia married.15 From this year, this province or later a part of it was controlled by East Rome.16
The four Pannonian provinces were not given up at the same time. First, NE Pannonia, province Valeria was ceded to the Huns probably around 409 (Valeria's civilian governor, the praeses has no chapter in Notitia Dignitatum yet (and deleted from the index too17), that was followed by Pannonia I as it was given to Attila probably in 434/435 based on the treaty between Aetius and the Hun great king.18
Pannonia secunda was occupied by the Huns in 441 following the successful siege of Sirmium during the war against East Rome. At the same time, Savia remained under Ravenna's control as Priscus Rhetor remarks (Exc. 8.135 = 11.2 Blockley) that Constantiolus, Attila's secretary was born in the part of Pannonia ruled by the Hun king. This fact implies if there was a part of the province under Attila's rule that there was another one that was not occupied by the Huns.19 The Roman rule in this province was strengthened by a Roman demonstrative campaign in 455 under Avitus' reign.20 After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Savia was obviously under Odoacer's and Theoderic's control, Pannonia secunda and Sirmium was under the rule of the Ostrogoths (456–473, 504–535) and Gepids (473–504, 535–567), later belonged to East Rome until 582 when the Avars successfully sieged and destroyed the town. In the former periods, only a small part (pars) of Pannonia, the territory of Bassianae was controlled by Constantinople as Justinian's Novellae clearly show (Nov. 11 Praef. certae provinciae sub eius sint auctoritate, id est … et pars secundae Pannoniae, quae in Bacensi est civitate). Bassianae was most probably ceded by Theoderic to Anastasius and East Rome in the agreement of 510.21 The other part of Pannonia secunda was called by Cassiodorus Pannonia Sirmiensis (Var. III.23.1, IV.13.1) or simply Pannonia (Var. III.24) in contrast to Savia with its new centre Siscia (Var. IV.49, V.14.1, V.15, IX.8.1, cp. Proc. Bell. V.15.26).22
In the last part of my paper, I intend to summarize the recent research on the province. Following the WW I and fall of Austria-Hungary in 1918, the study of Pannonia became international as today the territory of the Roman province belongs to seven different countries: Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, and Serbia, but the German language has remained the lingua Franca of the Pannonia research. As I am archaeologist, Classical philologist, and epigraphist as well I will study all these research fields.
History
A. Mócsy published his monograph on Pannonia in 1974, where he dealt all kind of historical problems based on written and archaeological sources and showed the way how a similar work on a Roman province must be written.23 He also edited the archaeological handbook of Pannonia, but it was published after his death only in 1990 where several Hungarian authors wrote chapters on all archaeological and historical questions including the evaluation of the find material in the province.24 Unfortunately, it was published only in Hungarian. On the other hand, Mócsy's book was published 50 years ago and hundreds of papers were written about almost all disputed historical questions on Pannonia from the Roman occupation and province organization until the abandonment of the province. Naturally, several problems are still heavily debated and will remain unsolved. That is why I have decided 25 years ago to launch a new series the ʻFontes Pannoniae Antiquae’ in order to edit all available Greek and Latin written and epigraphic (and numismatic) sources concerning Pannonia. Between 2003 and 2012 seven volumes were published in Hungarian, the first two in English too and there is a German version for the late Roman period. They contain all the sources from the Roman occupation until Constantine's death (337 AD) in chronological order with the translation, references, and historical and philological commentaries.25 Two volumes have not been published yet, but their manuscripts already exist. The edition of this series made possible to publish three new monographs. In the first one, I dealt with period of Marcus Aurelius' Marcomannic wars and its most famous event, the rain miracle that happened in the land of the Quadi.26 In the others, I intended to study the history of Pannonia during the Principate and in the late Roman period.27 Another sourcebook concerning the barbarian Sarmatians is also prepared by me.28 In 2014, another monograph on Roman Pannonia and the Late Iron Age of the Carpathian Basin was published by L. Borhy and M. Szabó.29 The history of the last century of the province and its end cannot be separated from the history of the Huns and their presence in the Carpathian Basin and in the Pannonian Transdanubia that is why I have initiated another series the ʻFontes Hunnorum’. In the last years, two volumes have been published in Hungarian that contain the period between 376 and 434, and its German versions are also planned.30 As soon as I finish the series (with two more volumes) I will be able to finish my second monograph on the history of late Roman Pannonia (between 363 and 455).
The Fasti of Pannonia were edited by J. Fitz between 1993 and 1995.31 In his huge, four-volume-long ʻVerwaltung’, Fitz collected all available written and epigraphic sources concerning the civilian leaders and military commanders of the province in chronological order. The Fasti contain the prosopographic data of more than 1000 persons (all together 1060). B. Lőrincz studied the military history of the province in several paper.32 He continued and finished the four volumes of the Onomasticon (OPEL, the onomastic material of the Latin provinces and Northern Italy) based on Mócsy's ʻNomenclator’.33 Several monographs on different Pannonian towns were published as on Sirmium/Srmska Mitrovica,34 Mursa/Osijek,35 Carnuntum/Petronell36 and Savaria/Szombathely.37 A team of colleagues from the museum of Aquincum in Budapest published a work on Aquincum in honour of the 80-year-old K. Póczy in 2003.38 Different authors wrote the chapters on the Roman town that included all parts of the Roman life from the topography of the legionary fort, the canabae and the civilian town to the material culture. In the field of ʻRoman Frontier Studies’ is the most important result that Zs. Visy published his synthesis on the Ripa Pannonica based on his decades-long research and excavations in the forts of Intercisa and Lussonium and all forts, fortlets and watch-towers were described by him and all of them were numbered and called after the nearest auxiliary or legionary fort.39 The other very important result Visy's work was that he identified and described all sections of the entire limes-road. D. Gabler has been working on the Samian ware material of Pannonia for several decades and he published numerous paper and books on these finds.40 E. Tóth has studied the road system of Pannonia based on ancient maps and aerial photography and the Itinerarium Antonini for decades and finally, in 2006 he published his monograph.41 Few years later, András Bödöcs published his thesis on the Roman roads where he described each section in alphabetical order of the settlements.42
Epigraphy
Roman Pannonia was one of the best Latinized western provinces where more than 6000 stone inscriptions came to light in contrast to the extremely low number (a couple of dozen) of Greek tituli that were published by me in a separate corpus (CIGP).43 The ever-growing number of the inscriptions has caused another big problem. In volume III of Th. Mommsen's ʻCorpus Inscriptionum Latinarum’ (the last fascicule published in 1902), about the half of the Pannonian inscriptions was published. In the decades following the World War II the publication of the unedited material has become a great desideratum, that is why the so-called national corpora were edited. Each modern country in the territory of the former province founded its own series, as the former Yugoslavia did it first (AIJ, ILJ, ILSl). In Austria, the inscriptions of Carnuntum were separately edited44 and a supplementum to the CIL III was prepared.45 The inscriptions from the auxiliary forts of Gerulata and Izsa that belong to Slovakia were also published (IPSST, TLPS). All inscriptions (including the Christian ones) of the most important colony, Sirmium in the territory of Serbia has recently been published by M. Mirković.46 In Hungary, Mócsy founded the series ʻDie römischen Inschriften Ungarns’ (RIU) and six volumes, all Roman inscriptions of the entire territory apart from Aquincum were edited following (1972) (more than 1560). A supplement to these volumes has been published by me with more than 250 new tituli (TRHR). The epigraphic documents from Aquincum (and territory of Budapest) with more than 1000 stone inscriptions were edited in our current series the ʻTituli Aquincenses’ (TitAq I–II) and a third volume for the instrumenta was also published. This series written in Latin has been founded by me with the aim that these volumes can be used as preliminary works for a future CIL III.2 In 2003 G. Alföldy founded and led until his death an international research team in order to publish and re-publish the entire epigraphic material of Pannonia and he published extensively on the Pannonian material.47 He planned to edit the Hungarian fascicules together with me, but after his sudden death the works has slowed down. Only the manuscripts of the fascicule of Carnuntum by E. Weber and the milestones volume of CIL XVII 4, 3 by B. Lőrincz and me with approx. 350 milestones have been prepared, but they have not been published yet. On the other hand, several new corpora were recently edited as the epigraphic material of Savaria, Brigetio, Intercisa (TitAq V) or Bölcske48 and there are two Hungarian members of the editorial team of the AÉp (Zs. Mráv, P. Kovács). The epigraphic studies have also been continued in the recent decades in Hungary. Based on TitAq I–II, together B. Fehér we published a monograph on the palaeography of the inscriptions of Aquincum.49 All new inscriptions can be edited in the periodical Studia Epigraphica Pannonica founded in 2009 (SEP). In the last years two new volumes of TitAq have been published (the northern part of the ager Aquincensis and Intercisa) and the sixth one is in preparation with the inscriptions of the southern part and the Barbaricum.
In the last decades, five bigger groups of votive inscriptions were found where dozens of altars came to light, for instance dozens of beneficarius altars came to light in the sanctuary of the road-station near Sirmium (AÉp 1994, 1400–1478).50 Hundreds of fragments of altars came to light in the sacred area at Pfaffenberg of Carnuntum and almost all of them were dedicated to Iuppiter Optimus Maximus Karnuntinus (the name of the deity was abbreviated as K, but in two altars the adjective Karnuntinus is fully written out: AÉp 2014, 1056 and Pfaffenberg No. 52).51 Similarly, dozens of altars were found in secondary during the excavation the late Roman counter-fortification of Bölcske in the Danube, several of them were dedicated to Iuppiter Optimus Maximus Teutanus (originally at the shrine of the former Celtic oppidum at the Gellért Hill of Budapest: TitAq 165–166, TRHR 219, AÉp 2003, 1408–1424).52 Similarly to the IOM Karnuntinus altars in Carnuntum-Pfaffenberg all altars were erected on the 11th of June even at the end of the third century pro salute adque incolumitate Augusti et Civitatis Eraviscorum and one of them was explicitly erected in finibus Eraviscorum (AÉp 2003, 1421). Teutanus was the main god of the local Celtic tribe, the Eravisci who was identified with Juppiter. Besides these altars dozens of votive and funerary inscriptions were found here too that were carried away from Aquincum and the auxiliary forts of Campona and Vetus Salina as building material in Bölcske (AÉp 2003, 1425–1451). A similar find from Solva/Esztergom was published by Barnabás Lőrincz and me where in more than twenty altars were found in secondary use in a late Roman brick kiln in the near of the auxiliary fort (AÉp 2011, 971–995).53 All altars were dedicated to Iuppiter Optimus Maximus by the cohors I Ulpia Pannoniorum mill. eq. and his prefects that garrisoned here. The last bigger group of votive inscriptions came to light in Aquae Iasae/Varaždinske Toplice in the territory of the former civitas Iasorum, later municipium Iasorum.54 Here, a huge thermal bath complex with several sanctuaries were revealed. In the last decades, dozens of altars, votive offerings, relieves, and statues has come to light, found in secondary use in the basin. They were mainly (almost the half of them) dedicated to the local Nymphs called Salutares (CIL III 10892, Aquae 76, Lupa 25463, 25464, AÉp 2017, 1143), Augustae (CIL III 4117, 4119, 10892, Toplice 11, 14, Aquae 79, 80, 87), Sanctae (Lupa 25462), Paeoniae (healing: Kušan Špalj 93–94) and even Iasae (Toplice: 6, 7, Aquae 76) named after the Pannonian tribe. On the other hand, several altars were erected to Fortuna (ILJ 1167, 1168, Toplice 21, Iasoniana: Aquae 76) and Isis/Sarapis as well (Isis/Sarapis: Aquae 73, AÉp 2017, 1143). The stone monuments were erected even by high-ranking officials who arrived with the hope for healing as governors (Aquae 76), legionary commanders (CIL III 4118, 10893) and magistrates of the local municipium (CIL III 10891, Aquae 76, 146) and other towns (Salla/Savaria: ILJ 1169) did. One of them is building inscription that was erected by the city of Poetovio, but the governor of Pannonia superior, L. Tullius Tuscus (between 162 and 166) commissioned the city and the procurator of the province supervised the construction (CIL III 4117).
Archaeology
Naturally, due to recent excavations, the most striking and popular new discoveries can be linked to the archaeology in the territory of Pannonia and the adjacent Barbaricum. The most exciting new finds belong to the complex site of Brigetio/Komárom where since 1992 the excavations have been continued by L. Borhy and his team.55 An insula with several houses has been unearthed in the civilian town with extremely important fresco finds (for instance a fresco decoration of a vaulted ceiling of a room showing Andromeda and Pegasus), and cellars. Based on the results of the excavations, it is a striking fact that the civilian town was abandoned after the invasion of the Quadi in 260 and the civilian population moved to the military town despite Brigetio had the municipal rank from the very beginning of the third century, later it received the colonial status. In the canabae and the legionary fort as well where two bath buildings have come to light. Vast areas of the canabae have been searched by geophysical surveys and a greater part of the settlement system became known. It is also very important that in Komárom a local museum and presentation centre was built in 2023 and the lapidarium in the bastion of the 19th c. fort has been also re-opened. The Slovak colleagues, K. Kuzmová and J. Rajtár have continued the excavations of the counter fort of Celamantia at Izsa too56 and several marching camps have been identified in the Barbaricum in the near of the Danube from the period of Marcus Aurelius' Marcomannic wars.57 Now, we have a more complex insight into the sites in and around Brigetio.
Archaeological excavations have been carried out in several auxiliary forts (including my own ones in Matrica/Százhalombatta and Annamatia/Baracs). The most interesting discovery has been revealed in Göd where an huge elliptical counter-fortification 3 km East of the Danube was found with circular towers, but the building of the fort was never finished.58 This building activity can most probably be linked to the year 374 when the dux, the military governor of Valeria ordered to build Roman forts in the land of the Quadi that led to the catastrophic incursion of the Quadi and Sarmatians as Ammianus Marcellinus' account clearly shows (XXIX.6.2). Another new discovery is the systematic research of the inner fortifications built inside the province along the roads in Heténypuszta, Ságvár, Tác, Környe and Fenékpuszta.59 These huge forts with very similar ground-plan (first period: U-shaped and fan-shaped towers (only this period exists in Tác), second period: circular towers built under Valentinian (only this period exists in Fenékpuszta) must have been used by the comitatenses troops and their names cannot be identified as they were not mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum. The most interesting case can be observed in Keszthely-Fenékpuszta near the lake Balaton60 where the civilian population of the region moved into the fort already at the end of the fourth century, rebuilt an inner building as a three-aisled Christian temple with an apse (Building Nr. 14) and they survived here the turbulent fifth century.61 The fort and the cemeteries were used later by the mixed people (provincials and Germans) of the Keszthely culture from the sixth century under the rule of the Avars. The Christian basilica was rebuilt with three apses and the elite members of the culture were buried inside the fort in the vicinity of the earlier Roman horreum. It is still heavily disputed that the provincial population could have survived or new elements from the Balkans or Dalmatia settled down or brought here by the Avars.62
Last, but not least, I wish to mention the case of Sirmium/Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia, the most important town of the province that was an imperial town from the tetrarchy, but it had an imperial palace already under Marcus Aurelius' reign.63 The most important discoveries can be connected to the French-Serbian excavations in the 1970s. The hippodrome and the late imperial palace with a tetrapylon were unearthed in the southern part of the town as well where a modern museum building was erected.64 On the other hand, the most important early Christian finds were revealed in the eastern cemetery of Sirmium that was connected to the martyr bishop of the town, St. Irenaeus. His grave basilica was also found together with an inscribed tablet that mentions basilica domini nostri Erenei (!) (Mirković 2017, Nr. 223).65 Another important discovery was the early Christian urban basilica found in the middle of the town above earlier building structures (falsely connected to St. Demetrius).66
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It is the written version of my paper held at the conference ʻDis Manibus Pavel Oliva’ in Prague, 22–23 November 2023.
See Bazant (2021); Oliva (2011a) 11–22.
Oliva (2011b) 201–202.
Mócsy (1974); Kovács (2014a, 2016, 2019). On the sources of Pannonia see FPA I–VII; Kovács (2014b).
Kovács. (2007) 99–107.
See summarily Kovács (2014a).
Mócsy (1974) 206–208, 263–265, Régészeti kézikönyv, 45; Kovács (2014a) 245–250.
Stein (1925); Fitz (1993), 1193–1195.
Kovács (2022b) 313–326.
Novellae Praefatio and 11.1, Hierocles Synecdemus c. XIX.
Add also Zos. V.50.1, Greg. Tur. Hist. Franc. II.8.
Kovács (2020) 661–668.
Stein (1925) 362–364; Stein (1959) II, 156.
Gračanin and Bilogrović (2016) 117–118.
The most important one is his monograph: Lőrincz (2001).
There are more than 200 inscriptions, but all kind of them are included (for instance magical gems, curse tablets, master stamps, graffiti).
Bölcske. The restored texts had to be corrected in several cases: Kovács (2004); Fehér (2016).
Aquae, Toplice: Kušan Špalj (2022).
Cp. Borhy (2019) and the volumes of the series ʻActa Archaeologica Brigetionensia’ and the yearly reports in the ʻDissertationes Archaeologicae’.
Sági. (1961). See also Heinrich-Tamáska (2010).
Bierbrauer (2004); Müller (2010, 2020). Add also Müller (2014).
Cp. the series Sirmium. Archaeological investigations in Syrmian Pannonia – Recherches archéologiques en Syrmie I–IV, VII–VIII, XI–XII. Belgrade and Rome 1971–1982; Popović (2004); Poznanović (2004); Popović et al. (2017).