Abstract
Hydrochlorothiazide has been utilized clinically for the past half-century, which is popularly known as a “water pill” as it produces increased urine output. The advancement of bioanalytical methods brought a dynamic field with exciting opportunities for future research. The current review emphasis the bioanalytical methods employed for the quantitative estimation of Hydrochlorothiazide as monotherapy and its popularly used combinational medications available from 1956 to till date. A fixed dose of 25 mg of hydrochlorothiazide with 43 combinational medications is currently available in the market and these combinations are widely employed in the treatment of hypertensive people; those whose blood pressure does not respond effectively to monotherapy of hydrochlorothiazide and also for the treatment of edema (excess fluid in the body) caused by illness such as heart failure, liver problems, and renal disease. It has been convincingly demonstrated that the combination of any two antihypertensive medications belonging to different groups of the same category, significantly lowers blood pressure, in comparison with the effect produced by increasing the dose of a single medicament. Among the various analytical techniques employed for the estimation of Hydrochlorothiazide, the review portrays that hyphenated technique, in specific liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy was widely employed. The validation parameters namely linearity, LOD, LOQ for individual drug and their combinations, were successfully calibrated. The effectiveness of analytical approaches was evaluated and enhanced for chemical factors. The involvement of green chemistry in the optimized methods for the evaluation of Hydrochlorothiazide for the future development, are suggested.
1 Introduction
Millions of individuals around the world are impacted by public health problems like high blood pressure and hypertension. Angina, stroke, renal failure, and early mortality are all impacted by atherosclerosis-related heart disease. According to the World Health Organization, 45 percent of deaths are caused by hypertension [1]. Most recent guidelines continue to recommend thiazide-related diuretics as first-line treatments for all patients with hypertension in some nations, including Australia, Canada, Europe, International/ASH, and JNCB.
A benzothiadiazide termed hydrochlorothiazide (C7H8ClN3O4S2), molecular weight of 297.739, is thought up of 3,4-dihydro-2H-1,2,4-benzothiadiazine 1,1-dioxide that's had a chloro group added to position 6 and a sulfonamide attached to position 7. Hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) is absorbed rapidly when taken orally and is detected in the urine after an hour [2]. The chemical structure of HCTZ has been represented in Fig. 1.
Chemical structure of HCTZ
(IUPAC name: 6-chloro-1,1-dioxo-3,4-dihydro-2H-1,2,4-benzothiadiazine-7-sulfonamide)
Citation: Acta Chromatographica 36, 4; 10.1556/1326.2023.01187
HCTZ can be used alone or with a combination with 43 other drugs, including Aliskiren, Amiloride, Atenolol, Amlodipine, Valsartan, Candesartan, Clonidine, Furosemide, Enalapril, Eprosartan, Irbesartan, Lisinopril, Losartan, Metoprolol tartrate, Nebivolol, Nitrendipine, Olmesartan, Quinapril, Ramipril, Reserpine, Telmisartan, Triamterene, Benazepril, Fosinopril, Enalaprilat, Captopril disulfide, Chlorthalidone, Doxazosin, Salicylic acid, Fluvastatin, Nifedipine, Cilazapril, Cilazaprilat, Dehydronitrendipine, Labetalol, Losartan carboxylic acid, (EXP3174), Quinaprilat, Simvastatin, Aspirin, Ramiprilat etc.
Many products has been used in combination with HCTZ like angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor blockers, Direct Renin Inhibitor, K + Sparing Diuretics, β Adrenergic Blockers, Calcium Channel Blockers, Central sympatholytics, High ceiling Diuretics, β Adrenergic Blockers, Adrenergic neuron Blockers, Thiazide Diuretics, α adrenergic blockers, keratolytic, HMG- CoA reductase inhibitors (statins), Non- selective COX inhibitors (salicylates) etc. Amongst them angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor blockers are mostly used.
The discovery, development, and manufacture of a new pharmaceutical product necessitate a thoroughly validated analytical plan. Conducting a comprehensive literature analysis is the only way to achieve this. Consequently, multiple search engines were employed to conduct a literature assessment, which revealed that there is no existing analytical review article on HCTZ and its combinations with biological fluids. Hence, the objective of this review is to compile, clarify, and consolidate the several tools and methodologies that have been devised thus far for the bioanalytical development of HCTZ, whether individually or in conjunction with other pharmaceutical formulations. Upon reading this review paper, the analyst will acquire a comprehensive set of facts to create and implement a resilient bioanalytical method in accordance with the ICH and USFDA criteria. This article provides an overview of the several extraction methods that have been successfully employed to recover HCTZ and its numerous combinations from a wide range of biological matrices.
There are plenty of different analytical techniques for detecting HCTZ in biological fluids that have been reported in the literature. UV–visible spectroscopy is one of the spectroscopic techniques. Chromatographic techniques include High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Ion Performance Liquid Chromatography (IP-LC), Micellar Liquid Chromatography (MLC), High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC), and Hyphenated techniques include Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectroscopy (LC-MS), Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC). There are numerous articles that suggest how to find out amount of HCTZ in plasma, urine, and serum.
Antihypertensive patients can benefit from HCTZ monotherapy for oedema, diuresis, and antihypertensive patients. For the majority of patients with these illnesses, effective cardiovascular prevention is relatively attainable if combinations of two or more medicines are used to control of acceptable BP. For cardiovascular patients with high-risk characteristics, this combination drug therapy may be effective and call for more intense drug therapy. It may improve patient compliance and adherence in patients who are not responding to high dose monotherapy, particularly when the fixed-dose combination is used. A stronger antihypertensive response and a higher success rate in maintaining the target blood pressure are two evident benefits of starting treatment with a combination drug rather than a minimum monotherapy and gradual up-titration [3].
HCTZ got FDA approval on February 12, 1959. According to the most current statistics on HCTZ, the FDA has issued a recall because prolonged use of the drug can cause non-melanoma carcinoma or cancer (basal cell skin cancer or squamous cell skin cancer).
1.1 Physiochemical properties of HCTZ
Being a diuretic having insufficient solubility and permeability, HCTZ is characterized as Class IV by the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS). HCTZ is a white crystalline powder, odorless and slightly bitter in taste. 60–80% absorption of HCTZ was found to be in duodenum and in upper jejunum. The route of administration is through oral and it can be taken alone or in combination. The range of dosage is (25 mg) minimum, to maximum (1,000 mg). During breastfeeding, 50 mg per day or less dose is appropriate as excessive diuresis in big dosages may reduce breastmilk supply [1–7]. HCTZ is soluble in acetone, sparingly soluble in ethanol, methanol and insoluble in ether, CHCl3 and in mineral acids.
1.2 Pharmacology
Investigations into the anti-cholinergic, anti-histaminic, and spasmolytic effects of HCTZ were performed [8]. Due to their inhibition properties to the sodium chloride symporter, these substances are categorized as sodium chloride symporter inhibitors [9]. In terms of dose-response impact, HCTZ is 6.3 times more powerful than chlorothiazide [8]. Figure 2 represents the mechanism of action of HCTZ.
The dosage ranged from 25 mg for the lowest quantity to 1,000 mg orally twice for the highest. The diuretic, natriuretic, and chloruretic effects can be seen in HCTZ [9]. The cortical segment and the early part of distal tubule both function as diuretics similar to thiazides [10]. Moreover natriuretic response is comparatively higher than chloruretic response. A dosage of 100–200 mg of HCTZ administered twice daily appears to have similar natriuretic effects as 1,000 mg of chlorothiazide administered twice daily. The medication should be taken twice-a-day at a dose of not more than 100 mg [9].
1.3 Therapeutic uses
HCTZ can be used as antihypertensive medications, diuretics, and sodium chloride symporter inhibitors. As a supplementary treatment for edema brought on by congestive heart failure, hepatic cirrhosis, and corticosteroid and oestrogen medication, HCTZ tablets are utilized. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that HCTZ tablets can help with edema brought on by several forms of renal failure, including nephrotic syndrome, acute glomerulonephritis, and renal impairment.
1.4 Route of administration and formulation
The oral route of administration is mostly preferred for administering HCTZ. HCTZ can be given liquid dose of 50 mg/5 mL and solid dose of 25 mg or 12.5 mg to treat essential hypertension. 25 mg of solid oral dose is preferred to treat oedema as diuretics. In case of heart failure 50 mg/5 mL liquid dose and 25 mg of solid dose can be given as preferred medication. Although the intravenous method of delivery is infrequently utilized but label recovery is better than the oral route [11]. This has been one of the challenging requirements for the study of research scholar.
1.5 Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics is the study of how the body impacts drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. A medication's pharmacokinetics are analyzed using the distribution volume, bioavailability, clearance, and elimination half-life [12, 13]. The volume of distribution and clearance have an inverse relationship with the elimination half-life. One or more of these parameters may be impacted by physiological changes brought on by ageing or medical disorder [14]. The pharmacokinetic parameters of HCTZ contain distribution volume (Vd) of 210L, average oral bioavailability of 89.4 ± 25.9%, peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of 2–5 h, creatinine clearance of 106 mL min−1 and elimination half-life of 8.2–12.3 h [2–6, 8–10].
1.6 Toxicity and adverse effects
The most severe effects of HCTZ causes hyponatremia (low Na + level in blood), that can be harmful, particularly for the elderly. Hypokalemia (low K+ level in blood) can result in unfavorable medication interactions and cause encephalopathy in people with severe liver disease. For instance, rashes and blood dyscrasias, are infrequent but serious [15]. The drawbacks of thiazide-like diuretics include carbohydrate intolerance, hypervolemia (volume depletion), elevated blood urea, and hypomagnesemia (magnesium depletion) (more with thiazides). Erectile dysfunction is the most common significant adverse effect of diuretics in the thiazide class. HCTZ therapy may result in thrombocytopenia [10].
2 Techniques employed in the extraction of analyte from biological samples
2.1 Solid-phase extraction (SPE)
The treatment system for extracting organic molecules from a variety of materials, as well as for purification, concentration, and fractionation, is known as SPE [16]. The four steps of the solid phase are further conditioning, sample loading, washing, and elution [17]. This methodology can be used to desalt proteins, store sugar samples and micro pollutants from environmental samples. For all of the studied diuretics, SPE techniques are the best option due to their adaptability, short processing times, and high recovery rates [18]. SPE is the most popular technique for preparing samples of HPLC. It is also used in other applications of derivatization, concentration of pigments, and changing of solvents. SPE takes place between a solid and a liquid phase [19]. In addition to novel materials and sorbent formats, SPE has experienced a number of modifications lately, most of which have been prompted by the shrinking and automation of various phases of the SPE, leading to the creation of new extraction methods [20].
2.2 Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE)
LLE is a method for extracting substances from liquids based on the partitioning of molecules between two immiscible liquid phases, one of which is the aqueous sample (biomatrix) and the other is the organic solvent [20]. Distillation and crystallization are the two main applications of liquid extraction where LLE is often used for non-volatile or heat-sensitive compounds, such as antibiotics (e.g., mineral salts) [21]. Micro-extraction is a type of LLE technology that involves Liquid-phase microextraction (LPME) and Membrane-assisted solvent extraction (MASE) [20].
2.3 Protein precipitation (PP)
Proteins could be extracted from natural sources including human plasma, bacterial extracts, and plant extracts using this method called PP. The processing of feedstocks in biosynthetic and bioanalytical strategies can also be done using the PP method. Precipitation may be the only PP technique employed in some protein purification processes. Blood plasma fractionation offers numerous examples of this approach, most notably in formation of albumin and immunoglobulin products G (IgG) [22]. Since over 130 centuries prior, protein precipitation has been used to separate proteins, and numerous strategies have been developed for this purpose [23].
3 Bioanalytical methods
3.1 Methods for the estimation of HCTZ as a single entity
HCTZ inhibits the sodium chloride co-transporter system in the distal convoluted tubules. This action has a diuretic effect, lowering blood pressure, but it also causes potassium loss in the urine. Majority of the chromatographic techniques reported for the determination of HCTZ as a single moiety in biological materials, such as blood plasma, serum, and urine, rely on HPLC and LC with mass or tandem mass spectrophotometry. For the estimation of the HCTZ as single entity in biological matrices, HPLC is ideally suitable since it provides selective result, which allows the explicit determination of HCTZ and its metabolites. Furthermore, LS-MS and capillary electrophoresis methods were also employed in the detection of HCTZ. Analytical methods for the estimation of HCTZ as a single moiety were given in Table 1.
Bioanalytical methods represented for the quantification of HCTZ as a single moiety
| Analyte | Method | Matrix | Extraction | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Detection (nm) | IS | FR (mL min−1) | Linearity (ng mL−1) | LOD (ng mL−1) | LOQ (ng mL−1) | Ref |
| HCTZ | HPLC | Human plasma | SPE | HibarLichrospher 100 RP-8 (250 × 4 mm) | 0.025 mol L−1 KH2PO4, pH 5 and 15% CAN | 230 | N/A | 1.2 | 10–900 | 3 | 10 | [24] |
| HCTZ | HPLC | Human plasma | LLE | Agilent XDB-C18 (4.6 × 150 mm, 5 μm) | ACN-0.1% trifluoroacetic acid: H2O (20:40:40) | 266 | FLU | 0.8 | 5, 400 | N/A | 5 | [25] |
| HCTZ | HPLC | Human plasma | N/A | Shimadzu Shimpack VPODS analytical column (5 μm, 150 mm × 4.6 mm) | 15%ACN and 85% TMAHS buffer solution(pH = 4.90) | 271 | N/A | 1.0 | 2.0–400 | N/A | N/A | [26] |
| HCTZ | HPLC | Human plasma | N/A | Agilent Zorbax SB column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 3.0 μm) | MeOH/H2O (80 : 20, v/v) | N/A | SMZ | 0.15 | 1.070–214.4 | 1.070 | N/A | [27] |
| HCTZ | HPLC | Human Serum | N/A | (RP18, 125 × 4 mm I.D. 5 µm; end capped, LiChroCART HPLC-cartridge;) | phosphate buffer ACN (90:10, v/v). | N/A | PABA | 0.8 | 5–150 | N/A | 5 | [28] |
| HCTZ | HPLC | Human Urine | LLE | C18 analytical column | 0.1% aqueous acetic acid: ACN (93:7, v/v) | 272 | N/A | 0.30 | 2 to 50 | 1 | N/A | [29] |
| HCTZ | RP-HPLC | Human plasma | N/A | Atlantis d C18 column. | 10 mM monobasic potassium phosphate: ACN (80:20, v/v) | 272 | HFM | 1.2 | 5–300 | N/A | 5 | [30] |
| HCTZ | HPLC-MS | Human plasma | SPE | ThermoHypurity Advance (50 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) column | ACN: 2 mM ammonium acetate (90:10, v/v) | m/z 296.10/205.00 | ZIDO | 0.5 | 2.036 to 203.621 | N/A | 2.036 | [31] |
| HCTZ | HPLC-MS | Human Plasma | LLE | monolithic C18 (50 × 4.6 mm) | ACN: H2O (80:20 v/v, add 5% isopropyl alcohol) | m/z 296.10, 204.85 | CTD | 1.0 | 5–400 | N/A | 5 | [32] |
| HCTZ | HPLC-MS | Human Urine | LLE | Ultra-Phenyl guard column (10 4 mm, 3 mm) | ACN: 10 mM ammonium acetate (40:60, v/v), | m/z 296 and 330 | HFM | 10 | N/A | N/A | N/A | [33] |
| HCTZ | LC | Human plasma | N/A | A stainless-steel column (5 km; 15 cm x 4.6 mm) Nucleosil C-8. | 10 mM sodium phosphate monobasic- ACN - MeOH (90:6:4, v/v/v), | N/A | HBT | 1.2 | 2.0–1,000 | 2.0 | N/A | [34] |
| HCTZ | LC-ESI-MS | Human plasma | LLE | C18 column | H2O: ACN (68:32, v/v) | m/z – 296 | MP | 1.0 | 2.5–200 | N/A | 1.0 | [35] |
| HCTZ | LC- MS | Human plasma | LLE | Waters symmetry C18 | 10 mm ammonium acetate: MeOH (15:85, v/v). | m/z – 296.1 → 205.0 | TAMS | 1.0 | 0.5–200 | N/A | N/A | [36] |
| HCTZ | LC-MS | Human plasma | SPE | Phenomenox kromasil C8 column | H2O: MeOH (27: 73) | m/z − 295.9 | IRBE | 1.0 | 0.78–200 | N/A | 0.78 | [37] |
| HCTZ | CE | Human Urine, Zhen JujiangYaPian | N/A | N/A | Na2B4O7, NaH2PO4 | N/A | N/A | N/A | 2.0 to 1.0 | 5.0 2.0 | N/A | [38] |
| HCTZ | RP-HPLC | Biological fluid | N/A | ODS Hypersil C18 (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) | pH (3.497), ACN (10.6%), MeOH (16.2%) optimized using Box-Behnken design | 210 | N/A | 1 | 1.25–12.75 | 1.09 | 3.33 | [39] |
HCTZ- Hydrochlorothiazide; HPLC- High Performance Liquid Chromatography; SPE- Solid Phase Extraction; LLE- Liquid liquid Extraction; RP-HPLC- Reverse phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography; HPLC-MS- High performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry; LC- Liquid Chromatography; LC-ESI-MS- Liquid chromatography Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry; LC- MS- Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry; CE- Capillary electrophoresis; KH2PO4 – Potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate; ACN- Acetonitrile; TMAHS- Tetra methyl ammonium hydrogen sulphate; MeOH- Methanol; Na2B4O7- Sodium tetraborate; NaH2PO4- Sodium dihydrogen phosphate; FLU- Fluconazole; SMZ- Sulfa methazole; PABA- Para-amino benzoic acid; HFM- Hydroflumethiazide; ZIDO- Zidovudine; CTD – Chlorthalidone; HBT-6-bromo-3,4-dihydro-2H-1,2,4-benzothiadi- azine-7-sulphonamide l, l-dioxide; MP- Methylparaben; TAMS- Tamsulosin; IRBE- Irbesartan; N/A- Not available; m/z- Mass per charge ratio; nm- Nanometer; ng mL−1-Nanogram per milliliter; mL min−1- Milliliter per minute.
3.2 Methods for the estimation of HCTZ in its combinations
This literature survey revealed a need for quantification of HCTZ and its combinations by enduring the following analytical methods in pharmaceutical formulations and in biological samples. The estimation was carried out by various analytical methods. The most commonly used method was Hyphenated Technique especially Liquid Chromatography combined with Mass Spectroscopy (LC-MS) where acetonitrile (ACN) act as a major solvent followed by methanol and water. The extraction was mainly carried out by SPE, LLE and PP technique. Among which LLE technique was predominantly used. The capillary electrophoresis was the rarest method in estimation of HCTZ which utilizes the Chinese herb and mobile phase used were sodium tetraborate and sodium dihydrogen phosphate.
3.2.1 Chromatographic techniques
3.2.1.1 High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
Among the numerous analytical methods, HPLC is the most commonly used chromatographic technique. High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography, High-performance liquid chromatography, High price liquid chromatography, High-speed liquid chromatography (HSLC), High-efficiency liquid chromatography (HELC) can separate macromolecules and ionic species, as well as liable natural products, polymeric materials, and a broad range of other high-molecular-weight polyfunctional groups. In HPLC, chromatographic separation is the consequence of interactions between sample molecules and both the stationary and mobile phases [40]. Bioanalytical methods for the quantification of HCTZ and its combinations using HPLC has been represented in Table 2 and proportion of analytical methods available for the estimation of HCTZ as single moiety in bioanalytical Samples has been represented in Fig. 3.
Bioanalytical methods represented for the quantification of HCTZ and its combinations using HPLC
| Analyte | Method | Matrix | Extraction | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Detection (nm) | IS | FR (mL min−1) | Linearity (ng mL−1) | LOD (ng mL−1) | LOQ (ng mL−1) | Ref |
| HCTZ + COMBINATION OF DRUGS – AML OLM, VAL. | HPLC-UV | Human plasma | LLE | RP-Column | ACN - MeOH −10 mmol H3PO4 pH 2.5 (7:13:80, v/v/v) | 235 | N/A | 1.0 | 0.4–25.6 0.3–22 0.3–15.5 0.1–18.5 | N/A | N/A | [41] |
| HCTZ + NITRE | HPLC | Rat plasma | SPE | CAPCELL MF C8 SPE column | ACN: HCOOH (4 mM) (60:40, v/v) | 237 | N/A | 1.0 | 5–500 10–1,000 | 0.5 0.6 | N/A | [42] |
| HCTZ + LOSA | RP-HPLC | Human Serum | N/A | C18 reversed-phase column | 0.01 M KH2PO4: ACN (65:35; v/v) | 232 | FURO | 1.0 | 25–10,000 50–10,000 | 1.02 1.02 | 3.39 14.96 | [43] |
| HCTZ + CILAZAPRIL + CILAZAPRILAT | RP- LC | Human urine | SPE | Zorbax Eclipse XDB-C18 column | MeOH and 10 mM phosphate buffer | 206 | ENAL | 1.0 | 2.4–30.0, 1.6–15.0 1.8–20.0 | 0.9, 0.6 and 0.8 | 2.4 1.6 1.8 | [44] |
| HCTZ + IRBE | HPLC-MS | Human plasma | PP | Supercoil C (5 mm, 15 cm 34.6 mm) column | 10 M KH2PO4: MeOH: ACN (5:80:15 v/v/v) | 275 | N/A | 1.0 | 10.0–60.0 4.0–20.0 | 0.98 0.43 | 2.98 1.86 | [45] |
| HCTZ + AMILOR | HPLC | Human plasma | PP | Shim-pack cyano propyl column | 10 mM KH2PO4– MeOH (70 : 30, v/v) | N/A | CTD | 1 | 0.1–10 | N/A | N/A | [46] |
| HCTZ + AMILOR | HPLC | Human Urine | SPE | Cyanopropyl column | 10 mM KH2PO4 solution (pH 4.5)– MeOH (70 : 30, v/v) | 214 | CTD | 1 | 0.1–25 | 0.03 | 0.1 | [46] |
| HCTZ + AMLO + ALISI | HPLC | Human Plasma, urine | SPE | RP_C18 column (4.6 mm × 250 mm, 5 μm, Phenomenex) | 10 mM H3PO4 containing 0.1% triethylamine (pH 2.5, v/v) and ACN | 271 | N/A | 1 | 0.0125–2.5 | 0.002, 0.004 0.005, 0.011 0.003, 0.01 | 0.006, 0.012 0.015, 0.034 0.009 0.03 | [47] |
| HCTZ + AMLO + VAL | HPLC | Human plasma | PP | RP-C18 chromatographic column, PhenomenexKinetex (150 × 4.6 mm) | ACN-phosphate buffer (0.05 M) (40/60, v/v) | 227 | N/A | 0.8 | 1–12 | 1.04, 1.42, 0.39 | 3.16, 4.31 0.81 | [48] |
| HCTZ + AMLO + VAL | RP-HPLC | Human plasma | PP | Gemini C18 column | 70% ACN and 30% ammonium formate pH 3.5 ± 0.2, | 254 | TELMI | 1 | 5–400 6–200 50–4,000 | N/A | 6.7 and 109.3 6.4 and 104.2 5.8 and 109.6 | [49] |
| HCTZ + CANDE | HPLC | Human plasma | N/A | Supercoil C18 (5 mm, 15 cm 4.6 mm) column | 10 mM potassium dihydrogen phosphate: methanol: ACN (2:80:18, v/v/v) | 260 | N/A | 1.0 | 30.0–2500.0 and 20.0–1000.0 | 2.0 | 11.0 | [50] |
| HCTZ + ENAL | HPLC | Human plasma | PP | C18 reversed-phase column | phosphate buffer: ACN (80: 20) v/v | 265 | Caffeine anhydrous | 1 | 0.005–0.1 0.01–0.2 | 0.00255 | 0.0085 | [51] |
| HCTZ + EPRO | HPLC | Human plasma | N/A | Symmetry C18 column 250 × 4.6 mm id | ACN –0.1M phosphate buffer | 275 | N/A | 1 | 0.5–50, 0.1–10 | 0.06–0.02 | 0.20 0.08 | [52] |
| HCTZ + IRBE | HPLC | Human plasma | N/A | N/A | phosphate buffer: ACN: MeOH | 272 | N/A | 1 | N/A | 0.015, 1.5 | N/A | [53] |
| HCTZ + OLME + IRBE | HPLC | Human Serum | N/A | C18 column (15 cm u 4.6 mm, 5 µm) | ACN - 0.2%, AA aqueous solution (50:50, v/v) | 260 | N/A | 1.0 | 6.25–18.75, 20–60, 75–225 | 1, 2, 2 | 3 | [54] |
| HCTZ + RES | LC | Human urine | PP | Elite C18 column | ACN (A) and 0.2% NH4 Cl solution (B) A: B at (30:70) | N/A | RIF | 0.8 | 0.05–20 0.02–5.0 | 5.5 18.2 | 7.1 23.6 | [55] |
| HCTZ, TELMI | HPLC-UV | Human plasma | LLE | shim-pack cyanopropyl column | MeOH: 10 mM Ammonium acetate, isocratic elution | 270 | IND | N/A | 1–10 0.31–3.12 | 0.018 0.022 | 0.052 0.068 | [56] |
| HCTZ + CAPTO | RP-HPLC | Human plasma | PP | C18 column (DIAMONSIL 150 × 4 mm, 5 µm) | ACN– trifluoroacetic acid–H2O gradient elution | 263 | Sulphaimidine | 1.2 | 10–1,200 20–4,000 | N/A | 3.3 7 | [57] |
| HCTZ + BZL + ENL + FSP + LSP + RMP + CPD + ENT | HPLC – UV | Human plasma, urine | SPE | Extend RP-C18 (25_m particle size, 4.6 × 250 mm, Agilent) HPLC column | 25 mM ammonia buffer: ACN mixture. | 215 | l-Aspartyl-l-phenylalanine methyl ester | 1.0 | N/A | 17–64 | 56–212 | [58] |
| HCTZ + LABI | HPLC | Human plasma | LLE | Microbondapak C18 column (4.6 i.d. x 250 nm) | 0.05 M phosphate buffer: ACN (7:3) | 302 | PARA | 0.7 | 0.3–10 | 0.05 | 0.25 | [59] |
| HCTZ + OLME | HPLC | human plasma | N/A | Kromasil C18 column | ACN -0.02 mol L−1KH2PO4 buffer (32:68, v/v) | 272 | CANDE | N/A | 0.005–0.64 0.01–4.0 | N/A | N/A | [60] |
| HCTZ + EPRO Mesylate | RP-HPLC | Human plasma | N/A | C18 (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5m) | 0.1% orthophosphoric acid pH (2.2): ACN (60:40) | 240 | N/A | 1 | 8.5–340 80–3,200 | N/A | N/A | [61] |
HCTZ- Hydrochlorothiazide; HPLC- High Performance Liquid Chromatography; SPE- Solid Phase Extraction; IND – Indapamide; LLE- Liquid liquid Extraction; RP-HPLC- Reverse phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography; HPLC-MS- High performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry; LC- Liquid Chromatography; PP- Protein Precipitation; AMILOR- Amiloride; AMLO- Amlodipine; ALIS- Aliskiren; VAL- Valsartan; CANDE- Candesartan; ENAL- Enalapril maleate; EPRO- Eprosartan; IRBE- Irbesartan; LOSA- Losartan; NITRE- Nitrendipine; OLME- Olmesartan; RES- Reserpine; TELMI- Telmisartan; BZL- Benazepril HCl; FSP- Fosinopril sodium; LISI- Lisinopril; RMP- Ramipril; CPD- Captopril disulfide; ENT- Enalaprilat; CAPTO- Captopril; LABI-Labetalol; RAMI-Ramiprilat; KH2PO4-Potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate; ACN – Acetonitrile; MeOH- Methanol; H3PO4 -Orthophosphoric acid; HCOOH-Formic acid; NH4 Cl-Ammonium Chloride; CTD- Chlorthalidone; FURO- Furosemide; PARA-Paracetamol; N/A-Not available; nm-Nanometer; ng mL−1-Nanogram per milliliter; mL min−1- Milliliter per minute.
Proportion of analytical methods available for the estimation of HCTZ as single moiety in bioanalytical Samples
Citation: Acta Chromatographica 36, 4; 10.1556/1326.2023.01187
In this review, a wide range of HPLC methods have been discussed with different extraction techniques, different bio-matrix by several authors which can be utilized in further clinical trial research work.
Ozkan et al. reported with RP-HPLC where human serum has been used as a bio-matrix in the estimation of HCTZ and Losartan potassium which has been detected at 232 nm. Potassium dihydrogen phosphate and ACN in ratio 65:35 v/v was a choice of solvent [43].
Shang et al. has discussed about the peculiar use of rat plasma as a bio matrix for the estimation of HCTZ and nitrendipine. The linear concentration of HCTZ and nitrendipine was found to be 5–500 ng mL−1 and 10–1,000 ng mL−1 respectively [42].
Salama et al. reveals the estimation of HCTZ and Telmisartan (TELMI) by the combined method of HPLC-UV by LLEE which are detected at 270 nm. The linearity was found to be in the range of 1–10 ng mL−1 and 0.3–3.12 ng mL−1 for HCTZ and TELMI respectively [56].
In this review, three authors discussed about determining 7 ACE inhibitors with HCTZ and spiked human plasma and urine using HPLC - UV in isocratic chromatographic separation, which is cost-effective and suitable for many samples [41].
3.2.1.2 High-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC)
HPTLC is a more sophisticated variant of traditional Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) in which automation plays a significant role. It is also called flatbed chromatography. In comparison to TLC, HPTLC delivers more efficient separation. TLC and HPTLC work on the same basic principles however, HPTLC varies in several ways, including the use of a precoated stationary phase, automated sample application, densitometric detection using multiple detectors, and photo documentation. These advancements make HPTLC a preferable approach to TLC [62].
In this review, 5 methods have been discussed in this HPTLC. Human plasma used as a biological matrix and silica gel 60 F254 used as a mobile phase in all five reported methods. Rote et al. has discussed double drug combinations of HCTZ and metoprolol tartrate (METO) using Human Plasma where PARA is an internal standard and PP as a bioanalytical extraction technique. The linearity range was found to be 2–12 ng mL−1 and 20–120 ng mL−1 for HCTZ and METO respectively [63]. Table 3 depicted the bioanalytical methods represented for the quantification of HCTZ and its combinations using HPTLC.
Bioanalytical methods represented for the quantification of HCTZ and its combinations using HPTLC
| Analyte | Method | Matrix | Extraction | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Detection (nm) | IS | FR (mL min−1) | Linearity (ng mL−1) | LOD (ng mL−1) | LOQ (ng mL−1) | Ref |
| HCTZ + ALIS | HPTLC | Human plasma | SPE | silica gel 60 GF254 plates | MeOH – CHCl3 (6:4, v/v) | 225 | NEBI | N/A | 1.00–10.0 0.10–1.00 | 0.206 | 0.624 | [64] |
| HCTZ + METO | HPTLC | Human plasma | PP | precoated silica gel Plate 60F254 | CHCl3: MeOH: ammonia (9:1:0.5v/v/v) | 239 | PARA | N/A | 2–12 20–120 | N/A | 2 20 | [63] |
| HCTZ, TELMI | TLC- DENSI-SPECTROPHOTO-SPECTROFLU | Human plasma | N/A | Silica gel 60 F 254 | Butanol: NH3 25% (8:2 v/v) | 295, 225 | N/A | N/A | 0.50–4.50 | N/A | N/A | [65] |
| HCTZ, TELMI | HPTLC | Human plasma | LLE | silica gel Plate 60F254 | CHCl3, MeOH, toluene | 278 | PARA | N/A | 200–1,200 | N/A | N/A | [66] |
| HCTZ + AMLO + LISI + VAL | HPTLC | Human plasma | SPE | silica gel 60 F254 | MeOH -dichloromethane-GAA (9.0:1.0:0.1, v/v/v) | 215 | N/A | 2.4 | 200–1,500 300–1,500 400–2,000 1,000–7,000 | 54.21 77.27 83.45 156.48 | 164.28 234.15 252.87 474.19 | [67] |
HCTZ- Hydrochlorothiazide; HPTLC-High performance thin layer chromatography; TLC-Thin later chromatography; DENSI-Densitometric; SPECTROPHOTO –Spectrophotometric; SPECTROFLU-Spectrofluorometric; ALIS- Aliskiren; TELMI- Telmisartan; METO-Metoprolol tartrate; AMLO- Amlodipine; VAL- Valsartan; LISI-Lisinopril; SPE- Solid Phase Extraction; LLE- Liquid liquid Extraction; PP- Protein Precipitation; CHCl3-Chloroform; MeOH- Methanol; GAA-Glacial acetic acid; PARA-Paracetamol; NEBI-Nebivolol; N/A-Not available; nm-Nanometer; ng mL−1-Nanogram per milliliter; mL min−1- Milliliter per minute.
3.2.1.3 Ion-pair liquid chromatography (IP-LC)
Ion pair chromatography, a type of reverse-phase chromatography, may deal with ionized or ionizable species on reverse-phase columns. Conventional liquid chromatography methods include samples that are widely used, multiply ionized, and/or highly basic. Organic ions have weak peak morphologies and insufficient retention in conventional reverse-phase HPLC; has used in spiked human urine to report double drug combinations of HCTZ and aliskiren (ALIS). As an internal standard, paracetamol (PARA) is applied [68]. Table 4 represents the bioanalytical methods for the quantification of HCTZ and its combinations using IP-LC.
Bioanalytical methods represented for the quantification of HCTZ and its combinations using IP-LC
| Analyte | Method | Matrix | Extraction | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Detection (nm) | IS | FR (mL min−1) | Linearity (ng mL−1) | LOD (ng mL−1) | LOQ (ng mL−1) | Ref |
| HCTZ + ALIS | IP-LC | Human Urine | N/A | C18 column (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 3 m) | 25% MeOH, 50% SMBP aqueous solution containing 6 mm TBAB and 25% H2O | 210 | PARA | 1 | 0.2–3 | 0.075 | 0.198 | [68] |
HCTZ- Hydrochlorothiazide; ALIS- Aliskiren; PARA-Paracetamol; IP-LC-Ion-pair liquid chromatography; N/A-Not available; nm-Nanometer; ng mL−1-Nanogram per milliliter; mL min−1- Milliliter per minute; MeOH- Methanol; SMBP-Sodium mono basic phosphate; TBAB-Tetra butyl ammonium bromide.
3.2.1.4 Micellar liquid chromatography (MLC)
Micelles are surfactants with a polar group at the head and a lipid group at the tail. When the concentration of the solution exceeds the critical micellar level, micelles form. Alkyl-bonded C18 is often employed as the stationary phase of RP-MLC. The adoption of the MLC approach saves time in sample preparation and allows for the direct insertion of samples with minimal retention time.
Rambla et al. reported an utilization of special parameter, column temperature which is very useful in MLC optimization where the temperatures ranging from 25 to 40 °C were studied. This approach, represent its ternary combination of HCTZ, amiloride (AMILOR) and atenolol (ATE) in human urine which was examined using hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) bonded stationary phase. The concentration range was found to be 0.005–50 μg mL−1 [69], Table 5 represents the bioanalytical methods for the quantification of HCTZ and its combination using MLC.
Bioanalytical methods represented for the quantification of HCTZ and its combination using MLC
| Analyte | Method | Matrix | Extraction | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Detection (nm) | IS | FR (mL min−1) | Linearity (ng mL−1) | LOD (ng mL−1) | LOQ (ng mL−1) | Ref |
| HCTZ + AMILOR + ATE | MLC | Human Urine | LLE | HP-β-CD bonded | PB (5.0 mmol L−1, pH 7.0) | 280 | N/A | 0.5 | 0.05–20.0 | 0.007 0.011 0.01 | 0.021 0.05 0.04 | [69] |
HCTZ- Hydrochlorothiazide; AMILOR- Amiloride; ATE-Atenolol; MLC-Misceller Liquid Chromatography; HP-β-CD- Hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin; LLE-Liquid Liquid Extraction; N/A-Not available; m/z-Mass per charge ratio; nm-Nanometer; ng mL−1-Nanogram per milliliter; mL min−1- Milliliter per minute.
3.2.2 Hyphenated techniques
A hyphenated technique is the concept of combination of the separation/chromatographic approach with an online spectroscopic detection technology. The goal is to determine the chromatographic approach coupled with the spectroscopic approach is to get an information-rich detection for both identification and quantification [70].
3.2.2.1 LC-MS
LC-MS comes under double hyphenated technique. The commonly used ionization technique in the development of bio analytical methods was Electron Spray Ionization (ESI) and Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization (APCI) [70]. The sample preparation which was carried out by PP in tandem LC-MS is massively a parallel approach which was often employed in analysis of biological matrix [71]. Hyphenated techniques such as HPLC with UV and mass spectrometry has proven a beneficial conjunction with biological screening of pharmaceutical drugs [70].
Jangidet al. has reported simple and rapid estimation of HCTZ and AMILOR in human plasma using HPLC coupled with tandem mass spectrometry applied to a bioequivalence study. The drug was extracted by SPE technique and the linearity range was found to be 0.1–10 ng mL−1 for both HCTZ and AMILOR [72].
Shankar et al. reported an estimation of HCTZ, AMLO and valsartan (VAL) by the hyphenated technique of LC-MS in rat plasma where ESI is a chosen a choice of ionization technique. The extraction process was carried out by PP. As result the linearity range was found to be 1–1,000 ng mL−1 where losartan (LOS) as an internal standard [70].
Salvadori et al. describes the estimation of HCTZ and LOS which was carried out by LC with double tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS), in human plasma. ACN and AA in ratio of 70:30 v/v is used as a solvent. The linearity range was found to be 4–800 ng mL−1 and 4–500 ng mL−1 for HCTZ and LOS respectively [73]. Bioanalytical methods for the quantification of HCTZ and its combination using LC – MS were given in Table 6. The available fragmentation and spectra of HCTZ has been represented in Figs 4a and 4b respectively.
Bioanalytical methods represented for the quantification of HCTZ and its combination using LC – MS
| Analyte | Method | Matrix | Extraction | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Detection (nm) | IS | FR (mL min−1) | Linearity (ng mL−1) | LOD (ng mL−1) | LOQ (ng mL−1) | Ref |
| HCTZ + AMILOR | LC-MS-ESI | Human plasma | PP | PhenomenexCurosil-PFP (250T4.6 mm, 5 mm) column by a gradient elution | 0.15% HCOOH 0.23% NH₄CH₃CO₂ and MeOH | positive m/z 230→171 negative m/z 296→205 | RIZA | 1.0 | N/A | N/A | 100 | [74] |
| HCTZ + AMILOR | LC-MS | Human plasma | SPE | Reverse‐ phase column with an isocratic | 2 Mm NH₄CH₃C₂; pH 3.0 and ACN (30:70, v/v) | m/z 254.1→237.1 m/z 230.1→116.0 | 13C, d2 | 0.5 | 0.1–10 | N/A | 100 | [72] |
| HCTZ + LISI | LC-MS | Human plasma | SPE | Hypersil Gold C18 (50 mm × 3.0 mm, 5 μm) | ACN with 4.0 mM NH₄HCO₂ pH 4.0(80:20, v/v) | m/z 230.6/116.0, m/z 233.6/116.m/z 296.0/204.9 and m/z 299.0/205.9 | 15N3, 13C, d2 | 0.700 | 0.050–50.0 and 0.50–500 | N/A | 0.1 | [75] |
| HCTZ + AMLO + VAL | LC-ESI-MS | Rat plasma | PP | Aquasil C18 (50 mm × 25 2.1 mm, 5 µm) reversed phase column | ACN and water containing 0.1% HCOOH (50:50, v/v) | m/z −408, 435, 297 | LOS | 0.2 | 1–1,000 | 0.5 | 1 | [70] |
| HCTZ + AMLO + VAL | LC-MS | Human plasma | N/A | ACE 5C8 (50 × 2.1 mm) column | 0.5 mM Ammonium Chloride & 0.04% FA- MeOH (45:55% v/v) | N/A | AML-D4, HCTZ-D2, C13 and VAL-D3 | 3.5 | N/A | N/A | 0.2, 50.0 2.0 | [71] |
| HCTZ + CANDE | HPLC-MS | Human plasma | N/A | Perfect Bond ODS-HD HPLC-column 5 µm 250 × 3.0 mm | ACN solution with HCOOH (0.3%) (70:30 v/v) | m/z 295.80→268.80 m/z 439.00→309.10 | N/A | 0.2 | 10–250 10–150 | N/A | 10 | [76] |
| HCTZ + CANDE | LC-MS | Human plasma | LLE | Zorbax eclipse C18 (150 × 4.6 mm, 5µ) column | acetate buffer: ACN (25:75%, v/v) | m/z 439.00→309.10 295.80→268.80 | Isotopic standards | 1 | N/A | N/A | 1.080 1.092 | [77] |
| HCTZ + CANDE | LC-MS | Human plasma | LLE | column oven (CTO-10AS) | 10 mM ammonium acetate: ACN (20:80, v/v) | m/z 296, 206.8 m/z 439, 308.9 | D-4 CAN, 15N2 13C D-2 HCTZ | 0.5 | 2–160 1–160 | N/A | N/A | [78] |
| HCTZ + IRBE | HPLC-MS | Human plasma | PP | C18 column (50 mm × 4 mm, 3 µm) | H2O with 2.5%: HCOOH: MeOH: ACN (40:45:15, v/v/v (%)) | m/z 296→269 and m/z 296→205 | LOSA | 0.70 | 0.06–6.00 1.00–112.00 | 0.01 0.51 | 0.06 1.00 | [79] |
| HCTZ + IRBE | LC-MS | Human plasma | LLE | Elite SinoChrom ODS-BP C18 column | ACN: H2O (35:65, v/v) | m/z 295.95 m/z 427.25 | N/A | N/A | 10–5,000 1–200 | N/A | 10 1 | [80] |
| HCTZ + IRBE | LC-MS | Human plasma | SPE | HLB cartridge | MeOH: miliQ/HPLC grade H2O 50: 50, v/v | m/z 427.3/193.0 m/z 295.8/205.1 | LOSA | 0.6 | N/A | N/A | N/A | [81] |
| HCTZ + IRBE | LC-MS | Human plasma | N/A | Ace 5C18 column (100 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) | MeOH: 0.1% HCOOH in H2O (70:30) | 427.1 → 193.0 295.8 → 269.0 | 13C 15N2 D2 D4 | 1.0 | 1–500 10–5,000 | N/A | 10 1 | [82] |
| HCTZ + IRBE | LC-MS/MS | Human plasma | PP | PhenomenexCuroSil-PFP (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) column | 4% GAA: H2O solution: MeOH: ACN (1 : 1, V/V) | N/A | LOSA | N/A | 10–4,000 1.0–400 | N/A | 10 1.0 | [45] |
| HCTZ + LOSA | LC-MS/MS | Human plasma | LLE | C18Phenomex 4 × 3 mm, 5 μm, guard-column | ACN – 0.05% AA (70:30, v/v) | m/z 295.9 → 205 m/z 421.0 → 127.0 | VAL CTD | 0.6 | 4–800 4–500 | N/A | 4 | [73] |
| HCTZ + METO | LC-MS | Human plasma | LLE | Venusil MP-C18 column | MeOH: ammonium acetate (10 mM): HCOOH (pH 3.4) (50:50:0.05, v/v/v) | m/z 296.1→269.0 m/z 268.3→116.2 | 5-Br U | 0.8 | 3–1,000 | N/A | N/A | [83] |
| HCTZ + NIBI | HPLC-MS- BIOEQU | Human plasma | LLE | N/A | ACN/H2O (50/50, v/v) | m/z- 295.6 > 204.4, m/z- 406.2 > 151.0 | N/A | 900 | 0.02 to 5 1 to 500 | N/A | 0.02 0.01 | [84] |
| HCTZ+ QUINA | LC-MS/MS | Human plasma | PP | Phenomenax guard cartridge C18, 4 mm 2 mm | ACN: MeOH (8:2) v/v | m/z – 439–234, m/z – 411–206 | CARVE | 0.8 | 1,000 | N/A | 5 | [85] |
| HCTZ+ RAM | LC-MS | Human plasma | LLE | C18 G column (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) | MeOH:0.1% HCOOH in H2O (85:15) | m/z 296.1 → 205.0 m/z 417.2 → 234.1 | CARB | 0.5 | 8–680 2–170 | N/A | N/A | [86] |
| HCTZ + RAM | LC-ESI-MS/MS | Human plasma | SPE | Hypurity C18 (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μ) Column | MeOH: 0.2% (v/v) HCOOH in H2O | m/z 296.1 → 204.6 m/z 417.3 → 234.3 | N/A | 0.900 | 0.750–300 0.125–80.0 | 0.750, 0.225 | N/A | [87] |
| HCTZ, TELMI | LC-MS/MS | Human plasma | SPE | C18(150 × 4. 6, 5µ) | ACN: Buffer in the ratio (80:20) | m/z 296–269.1. 515. 3–276. 2 | HCTZ 13c1, d2, TELMI3, | 0. 7 mL | 0. 809–350. 026 1. 094–601. 86 | N/A | N/A | [88] |
| HCTZ, TELMI | LC-MS | Human plasma | LLE | Venusil XBP-C8 column | ACN, MeOH, HCOOH, Ammonium acetate | m/z 295.9→268.9 m/z 513.0→469.4 | PROB | 1.2 | 1.00–600 | N/A | 0.5–1.0 | [89] |
| HCTZ + TRIAM | LC-MS | Human plasma | LLE | Zorbax Eclipse Plus RRHD C18 column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 1.7 μm) | 0.1% HCOOH: MeOH: ACN (5:4:1) | m/z 295.9 → 269.0 m/z 254.0 → 237.1 | D5 15N2–13C-D2 | 0.4 | 0.5–200 2.5–400 | N/A | 0.5 2.5 | [90] |
| HCTZ + VAL | LC-MS | Human plasma | PP | PhenomenexKromasil C8 column | H2O: MeOH (27:73,) | m/z 295.9 m/z 434.2 | HFM, IRBE | 10 | 3.13–800 11.72–3,000 | N/A | N/A | [91] |
| HCTZ + VAL | LC-MS | Human plasma | PP | Zorbax SB-Aq C18 column | ACN:10 mM ammonium acetate (60:40 v/v) | m/z 434.2–350.2 m/z 295.9–268.9 | PROB | 1.2 | 4–3,600 1–900 | N/A | N/A | [92] |
| HCTZ + VAL | LC-MS | Human plasma | LLE | C8 column | ACN: MeOH: aqu NH3 (75: 15: 10) | m/z 432.32 – 179.22 m/z 295.85–204.86 | N/A | 0.5 | 2–400 | N/A | 50.0 and 2.0 | [93] |
| HCTZ + ATE + BISO + CTD + SALIC + ENALA + ENALAPRILAT + VALS + FLUVA | LC-MS | Human Plasma | PP | C18(2) (150 mm × 4.6 mm, 3 µm) column | ACN and H2O containing 0.01% and HCOOH 10 Mm ammonium formate | N/A | PRAV | 0.8 | 2 to 1,000 2.5 to 250 187.5 to 7,500 20 to 2,000 5 to 500 3.5 to 3,500 1.5 to 150 10 to 5,000 1 to 500 | N/A | 2.0 2.5 75.0 20.0 5.0 3.5 1.5 2.0 1.0 | [94] |
| HCTZ + BISO | HPLC-MS | Human plasma | PP | Purosphere® STAR C8 column (125 mm × 4 mm, 5_m) | Ammonium acetate solution (1 mM) with HCOOH (0.2%): MeOHACN (65:17.5:17.5, v/v/v (%)) | m/z 296→205 m/z 326→116 | MOXI | 0.65 | 0.10–30.0 1.00–80.00 | 0.100 1.00 | 0.10 1.00 | [95] |
| HCTZ + ENAL + NITRE | LC-MS/MS | Human Plasma | PP | Symmetry C18 column | H2O: ACN (10:90, v/v) | m/z 295.9–205.1 m/z 377.1–234.1 m/z 349.2–206.1 | FELO | 0.3 | 1–200, 20–500, 5–200, 2–100, 5–200 | N/A | N/A | [96] |
| HCTZ + LOSA + EXP 3174 | LC- ESI - MS | Human plasma | SPE | Cyano, C8 and C18 columns (50 mm) | 78% ACN and 22% 5 mM ammonium acetate (v/v) | m/z 296.0→268.8 m/z 421.1→127.0 m/z 435.3→157.0 | Furosemide | 0.5 | N/A | N/A | N/A | [97] |
| HCTZ + NIFI | LC-MS | Human plasma | LLE | reversed-phase Polaris 5C18-Aanalytical column | MeOH containing 0.1% (v/v) HCOOH: 5 mM aqueous ammonium formate | m/z296.1→m/z205.2 m/z347.2→m/z 315.1 | DZP | 300 | 5–2,000 5–400 | N/A | 5 | [98] |
| HCTZ + OLME + AMYLO | LC- MS/MS | Human plasma | LLE | ZorbaxSB-Aq(150 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm) column | HCOOH: MeOH: ACN (35:50:15, v/v/v) | m/z -(409.00→238.00, 413.10→238.00), (447.10→207.00, 451.20→211.00) and (295.90→268.90, 299.00→269.80) | TELMI | 0.7 | 0.10–15.00, 5.00–1200.00 2.00–150.00 | N/A | 40 | [99] |
| HCTZ + QUIN + QUINA | LC-MS | Human plasma | SPE | hypurity C8 (100 × 2.1 mm i.d., 5 µm particle size) column | 0.5% (v/v) HCOOH: ACN (25:75, v/v) | m/z 296.0→205.0 m/z 437.2→187.8 m/z 409.1→176.0 | N/A | 0.20 | 5–500 5–1,500 | N/A | 5 | [100] |
| HCTZ + SIM + RAMI + ATE + ASP | LS-MS | Human plasma | PP | Phenomenex Synergi Polar-RP (30 × 2 mm, 4 µm) column | ACN and 5 mM ammonium formate – positive mode 0.1% HCOOH in both H2O and ACN – negative mode. | m/z 295.9 m/z 436.3 m/z 417.3 m/z 267.2 m/z 178.8 | CBZ 7-HC | 1.0 | 0.1–2,000 | N/A | N/A | [101] |
| HCTZ+ LOSA+ RAMI+ RAMI | LC-MS | Rat plasma | SPE | EC-C18 (50 × 4.6 mm, i.d., 2.7 μm) column | MeOH/H2O (85:15, v/v) | m/z 296.8/269.9 m/z 423.2/207.1 m/z 417.2/234.0 m/z 389.1/206.0 | IRBE MET | 0.4 | 3–3,000 0.1–200 1–1,500 | N/A | 3 0.1 1 | [102] |
| HCTZ + LOSA + LCA | LC-MS/MS | Human plasma | SPE | C18 Discovery column (4.6 ′ 50 mm, 5 µm) | ACN – ammonium formate buffer (90:10 v/v) | m/z 427.2/193.1 m/z 421.3/156.9 m/z 435.3/157.1 for LCA | HFMZ | 0.5 | 2.54 to 1509.56 3.27 to 1946.38 2.10 410.40 | N/A | N/A | [103] |
| HCTZ + OLME | LC-ESI-MS | human K3 EDTA plasma | SPE | Synergi MAX RP-18A, (4.6_150 mm, 4 mm) column | 0.2% HCOOH solution/ACN (30:70, v/v) | 445.5–149.3, 296.0–269.0, 449.2–149.3, 299.1–270.0 | 13C, d2 (HCTZD2) d4 (OLMED4) | 0.5 | 1.087–1061.373 to 4.051– 2500.912 0.956– 318.586 to 0.506–304.109 | N/A | 10.899 | [104] |
| HCTZ + OLME | LC-MS | human plasma | SPE | X Terra RP18, (4.6150 mm, 5lm) column | 2 mM ammonium formate buffer, (pH 3.500.10 with HCOOH): ACN (30:70, v/v) | 445.6–148.4, 295.9–268.9, 449.4–148.4, 329.9–238.3, | OLMED4, HFM | 0.5 | 0.11, 1.06, 0.10, 0.32 | N/A | 0.27 | [105] |
| HCTZ + OLME | LC-MS | human plasma, urine | SPE | C18 column with isocratic elution | ACN/0.05HCOOH/MeOH (60/36/4, v/v/v) | m/z 445.1→148.8, 459.1→162.9, 295.9→268.8 329.9→238.9 | RNH-6272/HFM | 0.2 | N/A | N/A | N/A | [106] |
| HCTZ + OLME | LC-MS | human plasma | LLE | UNISOL C18 150 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm column | MeOH: 2 mM ammonium acetate pH 5.5 (80:20, v/v) | m/z 445.20 → 148.90 m/z 295.80 → 205.10 | OLME D6 and HCTZ 13C D2 | 0.8 | 5.002–2599.934 | N/A | 3.005 5.002 | [107] |
| HCTZ + VAL | LC-MS/MS | human plasma | SPE | Lichrocart RP Select (125 × 4 mm), 5 nm | ACN: 10 mM ammonium acetate buffer: 95:05, v/v, | m/z 295.70→ 204.90 m/z 434.10→ 179.10 | IRBE and HFM | 0.5 | 1.25–507.63 50.2–6018.6 | N/A | 3.35 145.5 | [108] |
| HCTZ + IRBE | LC-MS/MS | human plasma | SPE | Chromolith Column, (100 × 4.6 mm), 5µ | ACN:2 mM ammonium acetate(80:20, v/v) | m/z 427.200 → 193.100 m/z 296.000 → 268.800 | IRBE D4 and HCTZ 15N213CD2 | 1 | 1.021–408.480 50.197–6038.206 | N/A | N/A | [109] |
HCTZ- Hydrochlorothiazide AMILOR- Amiloride; AMLO- Amlodipine; VAL- Valsartan; CANDE- Candesartan; ENAL- Enalapril maleate; LOSA- Losartan; NITRE- Nitrendipine; OLME- Olmesartan; TELMI- Telmisartan; LC-ESI-MS- Liquid chromatography Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry; LC- MS- Liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry; SPE- Solid Phase Extraction; LLE- Liquid liquid Extraction; HPLC-MS- High performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry; LISI- Lisinopril; METO- Metoprolol tartrate; NEBI- Nebivolol; QUINA- Quinapril; RAMI- Ramiprilat; ATE- Atenolol; BISO- Bisoprolol fumerate; SALIC- Salicylic acid; ENT- Enalaprilat; FLUVA- Fluvastatin; NIFE- Nifedipine; QUIN- Quinapril; SIM- Simvastatin; ASP- Aspirin; LC-MS/MS- Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry; MeOH- Methanol; GAA- Glacial acetic acid; ACN – Acetonitrile; HCOOH- Formic acid; NH3 – Ammonia; NH₄CH₃CO₂- Ammonium acetate; NH₄HCO₂- Ammonium formate; RIZA- Rizatriptan; PRAV-Pravastatin; PP- Protein Precipitation; CTD- Chlorthalidone; CARVE-Carvedilol; PROB- Probenecid; HFM- Hydroflumethiazide; MOXI- Moxifloxacin; FELO- Felodipine; DZP- Diazepam; CBZ- Carbamazepine; IRBE-Irbesartan; N/A- Not available; m/z- Mass per charge ratio; nm- Nanometer; ng mL−1-Nanogram per milliliter; mL min−1- Milliliter per minute.
MS/MS fragmentations of HCTZ [106].
Citation: Acta Chromatographica 36, 4; 10.1556/1326.2023.01187
Zero order absorption spectra of HCTZ in distilled water [110].
Citation: Acta Chromatographica 36, 4; 10.1556/1326.2023.01187
3.2.2.2 UPLC - MS
When paired with MS, UPLC detects the chemicals with great precision and accuracy. It operates on the vendeemeter principle, which asserts that the flow rate of the large particle is less than the flow rate of the smaller particle. It also discusses the relationship between flow rate and chromatogram height. This method is commonly utilized in the food sector [111]. In this literature, eight methods have been mentioned. Plasma is a widely used biological matrix in UPLC-MS method.
Khan et al. discussed the estimation of HCTZ and TELMI in human plasma by UPLC/Q-TOF (Quadrupole- Time of Flight)/MS where quadrupole - time of flight was used as an analyzer in Mass spectroscopy. The linearity range is 1–1,000 ng mL−1 for both the drugs [112].
Amir et al. described the estimation of HCTZ and TELMI in human plasma by UPLC with double tandem mass spectroscopy (UPLC-MS/MS). As internal standard Irbesartan (IRBE) was used and PP was the choice of extraction technique [111].
Alam et al. reported the quantification of HCTZ and LOS in rabbit plasma which was the unique matrix in the overall review. The linearity range was 3–400 ng mL−1 [113]. Table 7 depicted the bioanalytical methods for the quantification of HCTZ and its combination using UPLC.
Bioanalytical methods represented for the quantification of HCTZ and its combination using UPLC
| Analyte | Method | Matrix | Extraction | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Detection (nm) | IS | FR (mL min−1) | Linearity (ng mL−1) | LOD (ng mL−1) | LOQ (ng mL−1) | Ref |
| HCTZ + LOSA | UPLC-MS | Human plasma | SPE | BEH C18 column | 1.0% HCOOH in H2O and ACN (15:85, v/v) | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.5–500, 1.0–750, 0.25–150 | N/A | N/A | [114] |
| HCTZ + IRBE | UHPLC-MS | Human plasma | PP | Acquity U-HPLC BEH C18 column QTrap5500 | ACN: HCOOH (0.1%) | N/A | LOSA | 0.45 | 5–3,000 0.5–300 | N/A | 5 0.5 | [115] |
| HCTZ + LOSA | UPLC-MS | Rabbit plasma | PP | Acquity UPLC ® BEH C18 1.7 μm, 2.1 × 50 mm column | H2O (0.1% HCOOH) (A) and ACN (0.1% HCOOH) (B) | N/A | EPRO | 250 | 3–400 | N/A | 6 | [113] |
| HCTZ, TELMI | UPLC-MS/MS | Human plasma | PP | C18 (50 × 2.1 mm, 1.7 µm) | ACN: MeOH:10 Mm Ammonium acetate: HCOOH (50:30:20:0.1% v/v/v) | N/A | IRBE | 0.3 | 1–500 | N/A | N/A | [111] |
| HCTZ, TELMI | UPLC/Q- TOF-MS | Human plasma | N/A | BEH C18 (100.0 × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) | ACN: 2 mM Ammonium acetate (50: 50, v/v) | m/z 513.18 to 469.13 | N/A | 0.25 | 1–1,000 | N/A | N/A | [112] |
| HCTZ + AMLO + ATE + CLONI + CTD + DOXA + NIFE + OLME + RAMI + TELMI, | UHPLC – MS/MS | Human urine | SPE | Acquity ® UPLC HSS T3 1.8 µm 2.1 × 150 mm column | H2O: ACN (90:10) | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | [116] |
| HCTZ + AMYLO + ATE + CLONI + DOXA + NIFE + OLME + RAMI + TELMI | UHPLC – MS/MS | Human Plasma | PP | Acquity ® UPLC HSS T3 1.8 µm 2.1 × 150 mm column | H2O and ACN, both added with 0.05% HCOOH | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 0.039 0.019 0.098 0.195 0.390 1.953 9.765 | N/A | [117] |
| HCTZ + ALIS + AMLO | UPLC-MS/MS | Human plasma | LLE | XBridge BEH (50 3 2.1 mm ID, 5 mm) C18 column | 0.1% HCOOH in ammonium acetate buffer (0.02 M,) and MeOH (25:75, v/v) | N/A | VAL | N/A | 2.0–400.0, 0.3–25.0 5.0–400.0 | N/A | N/A | [118] |
HCTZ-Hydrochlorothiazide; UHPLC-MS -Ultra performance Liquid chromatography tandem Mass spectroscopy; UPLC/Q-TOF-MS- Ultra performance Liquid chromatography quadrupole time of flight tandem Mass spectroscopy; AMLO- Amlodipine; ALIS- Aliskiren; IRBE- Irbesartan; LOSA- Losartan; TELMI- Telmisartan; ATE- Atenolol; CLONI-Clonidine; NIFE- Nifedipine; DOXA- Doxasoxin; RAMI-Ramiprilat; SPE- Solid Phase Extraction; LLE- Liquid liquid Extraction; PP- Protein Precipitation; MeOH- Methanol; ACN – Acetonitrile; HCOOH-Formic acid; VAL-Valsartan; EPRO-Eprosartan; N/A-Not available; m/z-Mass per charge ratio; nm-Nanometer; ng mL−1-Nanogram per milliliter; mL min−1- Milliliter per minute.
3.2.3 Spectroscopic techniques
Spectroscopy is concerned with the development, measurement and interpretation of spectra which includes varieties of partial molecular energy level diagrams with absorption and vibrational relaxation [18].
3.2.3.1 UV Spectroscopy
UV Spectroscopy was the first technique to be emerged, which is extensively used in the analytical field from 1930. It proposes the measurement of light intensities with a deuterium lamp for UV and a tungsten (tungsten – halogen) lamp for visible (VIS) [119].
Heinz et al. reported the quantification of HCTZ and clonidine from bio samples using egg albumin was documented with simple three-point geometrical tweak and evaluated under ICH guidelines. The egg albumin was used as biological medium for the detection of HCTZ and clonidine at 235 nm [119]. Table 8 represents the bioanalytical methods for the quantification of HCTZ and its combination using UV Spectrophotometry.
Bioanalytical methods represented for the quantification of HCTZ and its combination using UV Spectrophotometry
| Analyte | Method | Matrix | Extraction | Stationary phase | Mobile phase | Detection (nm) | IS | FR (mL min−1) | Linearity (ng mL−1) | LOD (ng mL−1) | LOQ (ng mL−1) | Ref |
| HCTZ+ CLONI | UV | EGG ALBUMIN | PP | N/A | CH3OH: H2O | 317 nm, 269 nm 226 nm 315 nm 280 nm 296 nm. | N/A | N/A | 6–14 2–10 | 0.063 0.13 0.10 | 0.19 0.39 0.31 | [119] |
HCTZ-Hydrochlorothiazide; CLONI-Clonidine; UV-VIS- Ultra violet visible spectrophotometry; PP-Protein Precipitation; N/A-Not available; nm-Nanometer; ng mL−1-Nanogram per milliliter; mL min−1- Milliliter per minute; MeOH- Methanol.
3.2.4 Electrochemical method
Electrochemical techniques are distinguished by their excellent accuracy, sensitivity, and selectivity. Electrochemical techniques have been widely developed, and each fundamental electrical parameters namely current, resistance, and voltage has been utilized for analytical purposes either alone or in combinations. The most basic and commonly used electrochemical method involves flow of electricity through a solution for comprehensive electrolysis [120]. Author has been updated and reported unique up to date Batch- injection analysis with multiple-pulse amperometric detection (BIA-MPA) simultaneous determination of diuretics furosemide plus HCTZ in synthetic urine. The author has explained the electrolyte conditions where Britton Robinson buffer solution is used. A boron-doped working electrode was used in this simultaneous determination of furosemide and HCTZ [22]. Bioanalytical methods for the quantification of HCTZ and its combination using BIA-MPA Detection have been depicted in Table 9.
Bioanalytical methods represented for the quantification of HCTZ and its combination using BIA-MPA Detection
| Analyte | Method | Matrix | Electrolyte conditions | Potential region | Recovery | Linearity (ng mL−1) | LOD (ng mL−1) | LOQ (ng mL−1) | Ref |
| HCTZ + FURO | BIA-MPA | Human Urine | +1.10V +1.30V | +1.25V +1.13V | 92%–113% 92%–107% | 2 to 100 2 to 300 | 0.63 0.65 | 1.92 1.97 | [120] |
HCTZ- Hydrochlorothiazide; FURO-Furosemide; BIA-MPA- Batch- injection analysis with multiple-pulse amperometric detection; ng mL−1-Nanogram per milliliter.
4 Discussion
The development and validation of a new bioanalytical method for a pharmaceutical entity in accordance with ICH and USFDA requirements presents numerous hurdles for an analyst. In addition, there are other factors that must be taken into account while developing a technique, such as the physicochemical properties of the drug molecule (including solubility, polarity, pKa, and pH), the initial setup conditions of the instrument, sample preparation, method optimization, and validation. The analyst must exercise great caution when performing these stages, since they have a significant impact on essential properties such as specificity, accuracy, precision, and ultimately affect the quality of the result. Since the analyst's knowledge and capacity to interpret are crucial to this procedure, it must be carried out by well-trained individuals following solid protocols. Obtaining market approval for any pharmaceutical or biological product is extremely challenging unless there is proper development and validation of analytical methods. Modern pharmaceutical and natural product industries are well-equipped with extremely advanced analytical tools, which are increasingly useful for the development of desired pharmaceutical products with targeted therapeutic effects.
In the food and health industries, HPLC is frequently used for pharmaceutical research, assessing the nutritional benefits of various foods, and upholding food safety regulations. It can be stated that, despite the abundance of publications on HPLC methods in the literature, the most advantageous method for assessing HCTZ and its combination is LC-MS/MS when different analytical methodologies are taken into account. This is attributed to its capacity to integrate the separation capabilities of LC with the identification and quantification capabilities of MS. LC-MS/MS provides superior precision, sensitivity, and selectivity in comparison to HPLC, which is restricted to screening applications only. ACN is a primary solvent utilized in both the LC-MS and HPLC methods. While in combinational therapy, HPLC, and LC-MS are conventionally discussed, and UPLC-MS has been used in a small circle. Sample pre-treatment is a crucial step in drug analysis from biological samples, as it accounts for about 50% of the cost, labor involvement, and errors in the process. Hence, it is consistently recommended to streamline the sample pre-treatment procedure to be more straightforward, economical, and resilient, while maintaining the desired level of selectivity, sensitivity, precision, and accuracy. Primarily, SPE is employed as a method of extraction, which can be laborious and expensive due to the necessary utilization of SPE cartridges. Consequently, this leads to a rather lengthy duration for the extraction process and places additional financial strain on the laboratory's budget. Thus, employing the LLE method instead of the SPE method may be the preferred approach for doing pharmacokinetic research in clinical investigations.
Arvind Kumar et al. devised a method that is both extremely sensitive and selective for quantitatively determining OLM and HCTZ in human plasma. They employed LC-MS/MS with turbo-ion spray in negative ion mode, and used the LLE method for sample preparation. With less organic solvent consumption, a shorter analytical time, a simpler technique, resilience, good extraction efficiency, and environmental friendliness, this method can be recommended for future research [107]. Using response surface methodology and Box-Behnken design, SK M. Haque developed an isocratic HPLC method to quantify HCTZ and its impurities. The method maximizes the effects of four independent factors: pH (2–4%), ACN (2–15%), MeOH (2–15%), and flow rate (0.7–1.3 mL min−1) against the response. This method is a novel and efficient approach for quantifying HCTZ in biological fluid [39]. The utilization of AQbD (Analytical Quality by Design) in analytical techniques enables researchers to optimize time and resource utilization, eliminates the need for revalidation, facilitates direct transferability of the method to other systems, and ensures compliance with regulatory standards. In future investigations, the analyst can utilize AQbD in different ways to determine the necessary design space for the development of HCTZ, as well as its numerous combinations in biological fluid. De Nicolo et al. developed and confirmed the accuracy of a UHPLC–MS/MS method for measuring ten commonly used antihypertensive drugs in urine samples. The method has a fast chromatographic run time of 10 min and involves a simple dilution step for sample extraction. This method could be recommended for routine clinical use to screen patients who are potential candidates for invasive surgery [116]. There is just one approach established for UV Spectroscopy, IP-LC, and Micellar LC, which may prove beneficial to researchers in the future. The analyst can devise novel derivative spectroscopic procedures for HCTZ due to its many benefits over the traditional spectroscopic method. Batch Injection Analysis with multiple plus Amperometry Detection (BIA-MPA) is one of the latest top-notch methods in the year 2020, this was found to be analytically closeness at the 95% confidence level.
Currently, it is imperative to implement the twelve fundamental principles of Green Analytical Chemistry (GAC) in order to create analytical techniques that are both environmentally friendly and safe for the analyst. The pharmaceutical sector should decrease the utilization of solvents, substitute harmful compounds, recycle the produced waste, and eliminate unimportant processes. As per the literature, the most commonly utilized solvents are MeOH and ACN, which are extremely toxic on the environment and analysts. A green bioanalytical approach for HCTZ and its combinations has not been published to date, while a green analytical HPLC method is available [121]. In order to adhere to the twelve fundamental principles of GAC, researchers should endeavor to substitute highly hazardous solvents with environmentally acceptable alternatives. While there are numerous efficient quantification processes available, there is a requirement for a remarkable strategy to get an environmentally friendly and economically efficient approach. In the very near future there should be an increase in supporting infliction of medication understanding. Proportion of analytical methods available for the estimation of HCTZ and its combinations in bioanalytical samples has been depicted in Figs. 5 and 6 represents the annual publication database for the estimation of HCTZ.
Proportion of analytical methods available for the estimation of HCTZ and its combinations in bioanalytical Samples
Citation: Acta Chromatographica 36, 4; 10.1556/1326.2023.01187
Annual Publication Database for the estimation of HCTZ
Citation: Acta Chromatographica 36, 4; 10.1556/1326.2023.01187
5 Conclusion
A thorough review of the study for the measurement of HCTZ and its 43 biological fluid combinations has been carried out. HCTZ, as the name implies, is a thiazide diuretic that also includes the treatment of congestive heart failure, oedema, diabetic insipidus, and renal tubular acidosis. Overall the article suggests that human plasma is one of the most utilized biological fluids. Recent advances in the applications of more than 40 hyphenated techniques have been discussed in the combination of HCTZ till date. Scholars doing clinical trials can benefit from the coverage of all bioanalytical techniques. The prime challenges for the future research on the determination of HCTZ can be on progression of gas chromatography and hyphenated techniques like gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). It may be desirable to use two different combinations or more than two that have been utilized effectively in outcome studies. The analyst can apply AQbD in various techniques to get the requisite area of design space to develop HCTZ along with its various combinations in biological fluid. In future, there is a necessity for the development of novel techniques to lower the consumption of hazardous chemicals and waste generation for pharmaceutical analysis is of utmost importance to rising awareness of the necessity to approach green chemistry.
Conflict of interest
Authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
| 7HC | 7-hydroxy coumarin |
| AA | acetic acid |
| ACN | acetonitrile |
| ALIS | Aliskiren |
| AMILOR | Amiloride |
| AMLO | Amlodipine |
| ASP | Aspirin |
| ATE | Atenolol |
| BIA-MPA | Batch- injection analysis with multiple-pulse amperometric detection |
| BISO | Bisoprololfumerate |
| BZL | Benazepril HCl |
| CANDE | Candesartan |
| CAPTO | Captopril |
| CARB | Carbamazepine |
| CARVE | Carvedilol |
| CBZ | Carbamazepine |
| CE | Capillary electrophoresis |
| CHCl3 | Chloroform |
| CLONI | Clonidine |
| CPD | Captopril disulfide |
| CTD | Chlorthalidone |
| DENSI | Densitometric |
| DOXA | Doxasoxin |
| DZP | Diazepam |
| ENL | Enalapril maleate |
| ENT | Enalaprilat |
| EPRO | Eprosartan |
| ESI | Electrospray ionization |
| FELO | Felodipine |
| FLU | Fluconazole |
| FLUVA | Fluvastatin |
| FR | Flow rate |
| FSP | Fosinopril sodium |
| FURO | Furosemide |
| GAA | Glacial acetic acid |
| H2O | Water |
| H3PO4 | Orthophosphoric acid |
| HBT | 6-bromo-3,4-dihydro-2H-1,2,4-benzothiadi- azine-7-sulphonamide l, l-dioxide |
| HCOOH | Formic acid |
| HCTZ | Hydrochlorothiazide |
| HFM | Hydro flumethiazide |
| HPLC | High performance liquid chromatography |
| HPLC-MS | High performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry |
| HPTLC | High performance thin layer chromatography |
| HP-β-CD | Hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin |
| IND | Indapamide |
| IP-LC | Ion - pair liquid chromatography |
| IRBE | Irbesartan |
| IS | Internal standard |
| KH2PO4 | Monosodium phosphate |
| KH2PO4 | Potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate |
| LABI | Labetalol |
| LC-ESI–MS | Liquid chromatography Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry |
| LC-MS/MS | Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry |
| LISI | Lisinopril |
| LLE | Liquid Liquid Extraction |
| LOD | Limit of detection |
| LOQ | Limit of quantification |
| LOS | Losartan |
| MeOH | Methanol |
| MET | Metolazone |
| METO | Metoprolol tartrate |
| MOXI | Moxifloxacin |
| MP | Methylparaben |
| N/A | Not available |
| Na2B4O7 | Sodium tetraborate |
| NaH2PO4 | Sodium dihydrogen phosphate |
| NEBI | Nebivolol |
| ng ml−1 | Nanogram per milliliter |
| NH3 | Ammonia |
| NH4Cl | Ammonium Chloride |
| NH₄CH₃CO₂ | Ammonium acetate |
| NH₄HCO₂ | Ammonium formate |
| NIFE | Nifedipine |
| NITRE | Nitrendipine |
| nm | Nanometer |
| OLME | Olmesartan |
| PABA | Para-amino benzoic acid |
| PARA | Paracetamol |
| PB | Phosphate buffer |
| PP | Protein Precipitation |
| PRAV | Pravastatin |
| PROB | Probenecid |
| QUIN | Quinapril |
| QUINA | Quinaprilat |
| RAMI | Ramiprilat |
| RES | Reserpine |
| RIF | Rifampicin |
| RIZA | Rizatriptan |
| RMP | Ramipril |
| RP-HPLC | Reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography |
| SALIC | Salicylic acid |
| SIM | Simvastatin |
| SMBP | Sodium mono basic phosphate |
| SMZ | Sulfa methazole |
| SPE | Solid phase extraction |
| SPECTROFLU | Spectrofluorometry |
| SPECTROPHOTO | Spectrophotometry |
| TAMS | Tamsulosin |
| TBAB | Tetra butyl ammonium bromide |
| TELMI | Telmisartan |
| TLC | Thin later chromatography |
| TMAHS | Tetra methyl ammonium hydrogen sulphate |
| TRIAM | Triamterene |
| UPLC/Q-TOF-MS | Ultra performance Liquid chromatography quadrupole time of flight |
| UV | Ultra violet visible spectrophotometry |
| VAL | Valsartan |
| ZIDO | Zidovudine |
| GAC | Green Analytical Chemistry |
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to the management, SRM College of Pharmacy, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur for providing various reprographic sources for carrying out this work successfully.
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