Numerical and experimental investigation of quasi-static indentation response of PVC foam sandwich and GFRP laminated composites

Houcine Zniker; Ikram Feddal; Mohammed Khalil El Kouifat; Anouar El Magri; Mohamed El Hasnaoui

doi:10.1556/1848.2024.00790

International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering

Volume/Issue:: Volume 16: Issue 1

Numerical and experimental investigation of quasi-static indentation response of PVC foam sandwich and GFRP laminated composites

Authors:

Houcine Zniker

Houcine Zniker The National Higher School of Mining of Rabat (ENSMR), BP: 753 Agdal-Rabat, Morocco
Laboratory of Material Physics and Subatomic, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, BP 133, 14000, Kenitra, Morocco

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zniker.houcine@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0566-516X

Ikram Feddal

Ikram Feddal Optics, Materials and Systems Team, FS, Abdelmalk Essaadi University, B.P. 2121, M'Hannech II, 93030 Tétouan, Morocco

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Mohammed Khalil El Kouifat

Mohammed Khalil El Kouifat The National Higher School of Mining of Rabat (ENSMR), BP: 753 Agdal-Rabat, Morocco

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Anouar El Magri

Anouar El Magri Euromed Polytechnic School, Euromed Research Center, Euromed University of Fes, Fès 30000, Morocco

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, and

Mohamed El Hasnaoui

Mohamed El Hasnaoui Laboratory of Material Physics and Subatomic, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, BP 133, 14000, Kenitra, Morocco

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Pages:: 11–21

Online Publication Date:: 22 Apr 2024

Publication Date:: 06 Mar 2025

Article Category:: Research Article

DOI:: https://doi.org/10.1556/1848.2024.00790

Keywords:: numerical modelling; damage mechanisms; laminated composite; sandwich composite; quasi-static indentation

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Abstract

Composite materials are vulnerable to impacts that may occur during their use. Such transverse loads represent a significant threat to these materials because they can cause damage that is difficult to detect. Thus, understanding the mechanical behavior of composite materials during impacts is crucial for improving their damage resistance. Therefore, this study investigates the response of two commonly used composite panels in maritime transportation—a PVC core sandwich composite and a laminated GFRP composite—under quasi-static indentation (QSI). Using numerical simulations with Abaqus/Explicit, this investigation aims to anticipate mechanical characteristics and damage patterns during low-velocity impact. Results show a strong correlation between numerical and experimental data. The force-displacement curves aid in understanding damage sequences, with predicted maximum loads at 1.43% and 6.45% accuracy for laminated and sandwich composites. Both exhibit significant damage, including permanent indentation, matrix cracks, fiber fractures, and prevalent delamination around the impact point.

Abstract

1 Introduction

Composite materials application in advanced engineering domains like the aviation, automotive, and sports industries has significantly increased during the past several years [1–5]. In general, the nature of fibers and matrix determines the composite material's performance. In the process of design optimization, structural engineers frequently do a full evaluation of material properties including both the hybrid composition of the composite laminate (consisting of fibers and matrix) and the sandwich structure (comprising skin and core) [6]. This enables them to make accurate projections regarding the structure's performance and safety parameters. The wide variety of composite materials available provides designers with multiple chances to improve the design while taking into account different elements, including production issues, economic implications, and desired performance levels [7].

Nevertheless, these materials are sensitive to impact loads throughout their operating life, resulting in possible damage that can considerably weaken the structure's stiffness and strength [8–10]. As a result, understanding the reaction of composite structures to low-velocity impacts has developed as an important and extensively researched field.

In addition, the damage process is very complex, and the impact loading produces a range of damage processes. Consequently, it is crucial to understand how damage develops in composite materials under low-velocity impact loads. It can be difficult to comprehend the damage sequence since impact tests are usually quick processes. Some researchers opted for the quasi-static perforation approach as an option to address these issues [11–13]. This method is less complicated than low-velocity impact (LVI) since it does not have oscillations and requires a lower rate of data collecting. Several studies have consistently shown a strong correlation between quasi-static indentation in laminated composites and low-velocity impact damage [14–16]. This relationship was also confirmed in the current investigation [17]. In previous studies, Aoki et al. [18] and Nettles et al. [19] compared the damage behaviors in CFRP laminates under static indentation testing and low-velocity impact testing using a range of post-damage inspection techniques. Despite minor dynamic and localized differences, the load-displacement histories, damage processes, and damage magnitude of the two test outcomes were very similar. While understanding the damage phenomena caused during impact has been made feasible by experimental investigations, their analysis and replication in the laboratory are expensive and do not ensure that all the factors influencing the structure's response under impact are taken into account. Thus, numerical simulation becomes useful in trying to comprehend the various phenomena involved and in cutting down on the expense of prototyping. As such, the development of numerical methods has been the subject of much research. Continuum and discrete methods are the two main approaches used in the numerical prediction of impact-related damage. Both methods analyze how damage develops using fracture mechanics, and stress-based criteria are commonly employed to identify when damage first appears. Recent years have seen a significant amount of study focused on these two separate techniques: cohesive zone modeling (CZM) and continuum damage mechanics (CDM) [20, 21].

To predict the behavior of composites, numerous models have been developed by researchers [22–26]. Mahdad et al. research's [27] combined experimental and numerical methods to study laminates with a polypropylene matrix's quasi-static indentation response. The results of the experiment demonstrated that using steel fibers raised the perforation threshold, highlighting the importance of fiber type in identifying damage locations. However, there were a few variations in the damage progression and perforation resistance of laminates reinforced with glass fibers. To get further insights, the researchers developed a computational model to understand the mechanics of damage evolution in these laminates. To this numerical model, the Matzenmiller-Lubliner-Taylor (MLT) damage model was introduced. The veracity of the simulation results was confirmed by the striking alignment of the numerical predictions made using the MLT model with the experimental observations. In another study, Mahdad et al. [28] studied the behavior of thermoplastic laminates reinforced with steel and glass fibers in a comprehensive study that included both experimental and numerical evaluations. The study concentrated on low-velocity quasi-static indentation loading. The research looked at two kinds of composite laminates with a polypropylene (PP) matrix: glass fiber laminates (GFPP) and steel fine wire mesh laminates (SWPP). According to the findings, the failure mode of SWPP laminates was predominantly related to plastic deformation. The GFPP laminate, on the other hand, demonstrated a more fragile behavior, which was associated with the inherent brittleness of glass fibers. The investigation further revealed significant damages around the indentation area, together with matrix cracking, fiber breakage, debonding, and fiber pull-out, as observed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The numerical predictions were successfully validated by comparing them with the experimental results, strengthening the credibility of their findings.

Using both experimental and numerical methods, Taghizadeh et al. [29] investigated the effects of multi-layering on sandwich panel composite structures with different corrugated core topologies under quasi-static indentation pressures. The experimental results have shown that the incorporation of multi-layering into composite sandwich panels enhances their energy absorption capacity and increases their structural resilience while simultaneously reducing their weight during quasi-static indentation. Increased peak load, instantaneous force, and dislocation displacement are the causes of this improvement, which lasts until total penetration is achieved. Specimens with rectangular cores performed best when a number of corrugated core designs were examined based on attributes like maximum force, energy absorption, and specific energy. Additionally, progressive damage studies using pre-established 3D failure criteria in ABAQUS software were carried out, and the results of the study and the numerical values agreed adequately.

Through employing the quasi-static indentation technique on laminated and sandwich composite materials, this research attempts to simulate the mechanical properties and damage mechanisms of composites under impact conditions. Our objective is to compare these numerical results with our experimental results in order to confirm the effectiveness of the proposed models in reproducing mechanical behaviour such as impact force and deformation, as well as the different types of damage identified during experimental studies under the quasi-static impacts.

2 Experiment

The validation of the numerical models relies on detailed presentation of the experimental results, which can be found in our previously published works [6, 30]. To avoid repetition, we will refrain from duplicating the pertinent information, except when regarding the description of particular essential attributes of the specimens and the experimental configuration. This research focuses on two types of composite panels that are commonly utilized in real-world marine transport structures. The initially presented composite variation is constructed of a cross-laminated (0/90) structure made of polyester as the matrix material and unidirectional fiberglass fabric as the reinforcing element. As shown in Fig. 1a, this composite has an average volume percentage of 50% and a total thickness of 8 mm. The second composite type constitutes a traditional sandwich structure, wherein 4 mm thick panels of the first composite are employed as the outer skins (refer to Fig. 1b). The sandwich's core material is PVC foam, which has a thickness of 20 mm and a density of 80 kg m⁻³. The cumulative thickness of the PVC core and the two laminated skins forming the sandwich composites amounts to 28 mm.

Fig. 1.

Composite materials: a: laminated composite; b: sandwich composite

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

As illustrated in Fig. 2, quasi-static indentation tests (QSI) were performed on laminate and sandwich panels utilizing an LR30KPlus type universal testing equipment. The test specimens were clamped between two steel plates with a 45-mm square hole in the middle on each side, as shown in Fig. 2. The indenter used was a hemispherical impactor with a diameter of 12.7 mm, made from a steel material with the following properties: E (Young's modulus) = 210 GPa and ν (Poisson's ratio) = 0, 27. This impactor was used to centrally apply the indentation load in line with the ASTM D6264-98 [31] standard. All tests were carried out at a 2 mm min⁻¹ displacement rate until full perforation was obtained.

Fig. 2.

Experimental setup of the quasi-static perforation test

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

3 The composite damage models

3.1 Brief overview of the damage model

This study focuses on modelling the results of quasi-static indentation tests on PVC foam sandwich and GFRP laminated composites. The objective is to establish a validated model suitable for predictive studies. The experimental tests were simulated using the Abaqus/Explicit 2022 finite element code, which is employed to forecast the mechanical responses and damage mechanisms exhibited by the investigated composite materials. The elastic and failure properties used in the FE model were obtained from the previous work of Tarfaoui et al. [32], who conducted studies on the same materials. The mechanical properties required for the developed FE models are provided in Table 1.

Table 1.

Mechanical properties required in the implementation of the FE model

	Elastic moduli (MPa)				Poisson's ratios			Shear moduli (MPa)
	E ₁₁	E ₂₂	E ₃₃	ν ₁₂		ν ₁₃	ν ₂₃	G ₁₂	G ₁₃	G ₂₃
Laminated composite	48.16	11.21	11.21	0.27		0.27	0.096	4.42	4.42	9
PVC core	0.077	0.077	0.11	0.3		0.3	0.3	0.029	0.029	0.029

Longitudinal and transverse strengths (MPa)				Shear strengths (MPa)
X_T	X_C	Y_T	Y_C	S _L	S _T
1,021	978	29.5	171.8	70	70

Fracture energy
G_IC (N mm⁻¹)	G_IIC (N mm⁻¹)	G _IIIC (N mm⁻¹)
0.484	0.296	0.296

Where the symbols E ₁₁, E ₂₂ and E ₃₃ respectively represent the Young's modulus in the longitudinal (1) and transverse (2,3) directions. ν ₁₂, ν ₁₃, and ν ₂₃ respectively represent the in-plane Poisson's ratio and transverse Poisson's ratio. The symbols G ₁₁, G ₂₂ and G ₃₃ respectively represent the shear modulus in the longitudinal (1) and transverse (2,3) directions. X_T denotes the tensile strengths in the fiber direction. X_c denotes the compressive strengths in the fiber direction. Y_T denotes the tensile strengths in the transverse direction. Yc denotes the compressive strengths in the transverse direction. S_L denotes the longitudinal shear strengths of the composite, and S_T denotes the transverse shear strengths of the composite. G_IC, G_IIC and G_IIIC respectively represent the critical energy release rate in mode I, mode II, and mode III.

To simulate the laminated composite sheet, composed of unidirectional 0.33 mm-thick cross-ply plies, continuous shell elements (SC8R) were used to represent each individual ply, as well as cohesive surfaces to model the interfaces between plies with different fiber orientations (Fig. 3a). For the sandwich composite, the skins made from the previous laminate were also modelled using a continuous shell element (SC8R), while the PVC core was modelled using the C3D8R solid element (Fig. 3b). Loading tools (impactor) and support brackets were represented as rigid bodies with an element mesh (R3D3).

Fig. 3.

Numerical models for laminate and sandwich composites

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

To simulate the onset of damage in laminated and sandwich composites during quasi-static indentation impact loading, 3-D finite element models were created using the configurations shown in Fig. 4b and c. An embedding boundary condition was applied to the plates to reproduce the experimental conditions, as shown in Fig. 4a. When the damage variables reach their maximum for the folds and interface, the area corresponding to the fully damaged regions is removed from the mesh to take into account only the possibility of penetration. The displacement load was applied at the center of the plate with an incident indentation velocity of v = 1.2 mm min⁻¹.

Fig. 4.

Numerical models developed for modelling quasi-static indentation testing: (a) schematic model for the impact test; (b) model developed for the laminated composite; (c) model developed for the composite sandwich

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

To model interlaminar damage within composite plies, the cohesive surface approach was employed for interfacial contact. This approach provides a simplified representation of cohesive connections with minimal interface thickness. The general ABAQUS contact algorithm was utilized to facilitate interactions between objects, employing the kinematic stress method for normal behavior and Coulomb friction for tangential behavior.

A friction coefficient of 0.3 was employed to simulate the interaction between the rigid impactor and the composite plate [33]. The quasi-static impact scenario was simulated by adding a loading velocity to the impactor's center of mass.

Figure 5 shows the flowchart of the numerical approach adopted to model interlaminar and intralaminar damage in a single mesh element, for a given computation time step.

Fig. 5.

Creating a flowchart diagram to depict the Finite Element (FE) model's setup for a solitary computation time step, with a sole element dedicated to simulating both interlaminar and intralaminar damage

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

3.2 The intralaminar damage model

3.2.1 Onset of intralaminar damage

To anticipate the occurrence of intralaminar damage, a model was utilized that is based on Hashin's 2-D theory [34]. This theory assumes that the composite material being analyzed is linearly elastic prior to damage initiation. Hashin's damage model combines four unique types of damage mechanisms to account for the initiation of intralaminar damage in unidirectional fiber sublayers. These damage mechanisms correspond to tensile and compressive fibre failures, as well as tensile and compressive matrix failures. The damage criteria for each of these mechanisms in Hashin's approach are formulated as follows:

-For fiber Failure in tension, (σ11 ≥ 0):

F_{ft} = {(\frac{σ_{11}}{X_{t}})}^{2} + α {(\frac{σ_{12}}{S_{12}})}^{2} \geq 1

(1)

-For fiber failure in compression, (σ11 < 0)

F_{fc} = {(\frac{σ_{11}}{X_{c}})}^{2} \geq 1

(2)

-For matrix failure in tension (σ22 ≥ 0)

F_{mt} = {(\frac{σ_{22}}{Y_{t}})}^{2} + {(\frac{σ_{12}}{S_{12}})}^{2} \geq 1

(3)

-For matrix failure in compression (σ22 < 0)

F_{mc} = {(\frac{σ_{22}}{2 S_{23}})}^{2} + [{(\frac{Y_{c}}{{2 S}_{T}})}^{2} - 1] (\frac{σ_{22}}{Y_{c}}) {(\frac{σ_{12}}{S_{L}})}^{2} \geq 1

(4)

The equations presented above contain variables labelled $F_{ft}$ , $F_{fc}$ , $F_{mt}$ and $F_{mc}$ , which correspond to the four types of damage: tensile fiber failure, compressive fiber failure, tensile matrix failure, and compressive matrix failure. Failure is expected when F is equal to or greater than 1. The parameters X_T and X_c represent the laminate's tensile and compressive strengths in the longitudinal fiber direction, respectively. Y_T and Y_C represent the laminate's tensile and compressive strengths in the transverse direction, respectively. The laminate's shear strengths are represented by S_L and S_T = Y_C/2 in the longitudinal and transverse orientations of the fibers, respectively. The parameters $σ_{11}$ , $σ_{22}$ and $σ_{12}$ correspond to the effective stress tensor's normal and shear components, which are utilized to assess the previous criterion.

3.2.2 The evolution of intralaminar damage

Once damages have been initiated in a structure, they propagate and cause a decrease in its stiffness until it eventually collapses. The elastic behavior of a damaged structure is described by damage mechanics. Four damage models were developed to represent the damage induced by tensile fiber failure, compressive fiber failure, tensile matrix failure, and compressive matrix failure, namely

d_{f}^{t}

d_{f}^{C}

d_{m}^{t}

and

d_{m}^{c}

, were incorporated in the model. When an element is undamaged, these variables have a value of 0, but when it is fully damaged, they have a value of 1. The damage variable, d, takes on a generic form after a specific damage procedure is initiated, as described by [35]:

d = \frac{ε_{f} (ε - ε_{0})}{ε (ε_{f} - ε_{0})}

(5)

The equation for the damage variable, d, involves the applied strain $ε$ , the strain values associated with the onset of damage, $ε_{0}$ , and final failure, $ε_{f}$ .

Currently, before the initiation of damage, the composite laminate is assumed to exhibit linear elasticity, with a stiffness matrix corresponding to a plane stress orthotropic material. However, once damage initiates and progresses, the material's response is computed from:

{σ} = [C (d)] {ε}

(6)

where [C (d)] is the damaged elasticity matrix which is written as:

[C (d] = [\begin{array}{c} (1 - d_{f}) E_{1} & (1 - d_{m}) (1 - d_{f}) {ν_{12} E}_{2} & 0 \\ (1 - d_{m}) (1 - d_{f}) {ν_{12} E}_{2} & (1 - d_{m}) E_{2} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & D (1 - d_{s}) G_{1} \end{array}]

(7)

where

D = 1 - (1 - d_{m}) (1 - d_{f}) {ν_{12} ν}_{21}

(8)

The three damage parameters

d_{f}

d_{m}

and

d_{s}

that reflect fiber rupture, matrix rupture, and shear rupture, respectively, are determined using the damage variables (

d_{f t}

d_{f c}, d_{m t} and d_{m c}

) by these equations:

Fiber failure : d_{f} = {\begin{array}{c} {d_{f}^{t}, σ}_{11} \geq 0 \\ {d_{f}^{c}, σ}_{11} < 0 \end{array}

(9)

Matrix failure : d_{m} = {\begin{array}{c} {d_{m}^{t}, σ}_{22} \geq 0 \\ {d_{m}^{c}, σ}_{22} < 0 \end{array}

(10)

Shear failure : d_{s} = 1 - (1 - d_{f}^{t}) (1 - d_{f}^{c}) (1 - d_{m}^{t}) (1 - d_{m}^{c})

(11)

3.3 The interlaminar damage model (delamination)

Interlaminar damage in composite laminates commonly arises due to the initiation and subsequent growth of delamination between the layers. To faithfully depict this phenomenon, the Abaqus software makes use of its inherent surface-based cohesive element, which employs an energy release-based approach. The behavior of the interface element is captured through a cohesive surface law [36], where the traction (σ) is a function of the displacement ( $δ$ ), as demonstrated in Fig. 6. Specifically, the cohesive law adopted for the interface element takes the form of a bilinear configuration, aligning with a linear softening material model.

Fig. 6.

Schematic diagram for the bilinear cohesive law

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

The damage progression in this scenario follows a two-step process. Prior to any delamination initiation, the relationship between traction and displacement adheres to linear elastic behavior. However, upon fulfilment of the damage criterion, specifically at a displacement value of “ $δ$ o,” the cohesive stiffness starts to degrade linearly. This degradation persists until the interface completely separates, leading to the propagation of delamination. The delamination propagation continues until it reaches the maximum failure displacement of “ $δ$ f”. The energy encompassed by the bilinear cohesive law is equivalent to the interlaminar fracture energy, Gc.

3.3.1 The initiation of interlaminar damage

In order to assess interlaminar damage in the two composites studied, a quadratic stress criterion was utilized. This criterion establishes when interlaminar damage begins, and was incorporated into the finite element analysis (FEA) code. The specific formulation of the criterion can be found in reference [37] and is applied when:

{(\frac{〈 σ_{n} 〉}{σ_{n}^{0}})}^{2} + {(\frac{τ_{s}}{τ_{s}^{0}})}^{2} + {(\frac{τ_{t}}{τ_{t}^{0}})}^{2} = 1

(12)

where

σ_{n}

refers to the current normal stress acting on the ply, while

τ_{s}

and

τ_{t}

depict the present shear stresses operating within the ply. The cohesive strengths, denoted as

σ_{n}^{0}

τ_{s}^{0},

and

τ_{t}^{0}

, indicate the tensile strength of the interface and its shear strength, respectively.

3.3.2 The evolution of interlaminar damage

To model the behavior of the embedded cohesive surface law (as depicted in Fig. 6), it is necessary to determine the interlaminar fracture energy, Gc. This quantity denotes the area covered by the bilinear law. To determine the optimal value of Gc for the growth of delamination between the composite plies, the energy-based Benzeggagh-Kenane (B–K) [38] mixed-mode propagation criterion was used in this investigation. The standard is stated as follows:

G_{C} = G_{I c} + (G_{I I c} - G_{I c}) {(\frac{G_{I I}}{G_{I I} + G_{I}})}^{η} = 1

(13)

In the equation, G_Ic represents the Mode I (opening tensile) interlaminar fracture energy, G_IIc represents the Mode II (in-plane shear) interlaminar fracture energy, and $η$ represents the B–K mixed-mode interaction exponent. These terms can be experimentally measured [39, 40] to obtain their respective values. The parameters $G_{I}$ and $G_{I I}$ represent the current Mode I and Mode II energy release rates, respectively.

4 Results analysis

This section examines the damage evolution process and dynamic mechanical response of an all-composite sandwich construction with a honeycomb core that is subjected to quasi-static indentation impact loading. The construction of refined finite element models and the establishment of a numerical computing framework accomplish this. Moreover, a comparative analysis is carried out between specific results and conclusions made from previous research.

4.1 Load-displacement responses

A comparison of the experimental and numerical characteristics of the reaction of laminated and sandwich composites to quasi-static indentation impact loading was performed to assess the validity of the numerical simulation including force-displacement curves and damage mechanisms, as illustrated in Figs 7 –9. The desired responses are reported and discussed below.

Fig. 7.

Comparison of experimental and numerical results of quasi-static perforation tests for laminated composites: (a) force-displacement curves, (b) cross-sectional views of composite plates to show damage progression during test

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

Figure 7a shows the numerical and experimental evolution of impact force as a function of impactor displacement for the sandwich composite. Points from A to E have been marked on the curve to demonstrate the sequence and progression of damage and rupture of the laminated composites during the quasi-static indentation impact event (Fig. 7b).

Figure 7a shows that the numerical simulation can reasonably predict the important characteristics of the experimental curve including a noticeable alignment between the initial slope of the curves and the peak force. The load evolution response is primarily decomposed into two phases. The first phase is elastic and linear (Zone I), corresponding to an elastic and linear behavior where there is a linear increase in impact force until the peak, at which the maximum load is reached. A non-linear phase follows Zone II, characterized by a decrease in load until rupture and complete perforation due to the initiation of damage.

The results shown in Fig. 8a provide a detailed view of the behavior of the sandwich composite during a quasi-static indentation impact event. The load-displacement curves for both experimental and numerical data were compared, and points (A–E) were marked on the curve to track the damage and failure sequence of the composite layers.

Fig. 8.

Comparison of experimental and numerical results of quasi-static perforation tests for sandwich composites: (a) force-displacement curves, (b) cross-sectional views of composite plates to show damage progression during test

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

The load response was analyzed in three stages. In the first stage, the force increased nonlinearly until it reached the first peak. The non-linearity of the behavior of these composite sandwiches lies in their composition of two distinct elements: on the one hand, the layers of laminates which provide the structural strength and rigidity, and on the other hand, the PVC foam which ensures the thermal insulation and impact absorption capacity. These two components have different mechanical characteristics, which can result in a non-linear response of the material under various loading conditions. laminate layers can deform elastically to a certain extent and then exhibit plastic deformations, while PVC foam can compress or deform more flexibly.

In the second zone, the force dropped nonlinearly. This was due to the distribution of fiber breakage, delamination and cracking of the matrix, as well as the fact that the foam core had become the main component capable of supporting the additional impact load. Subsequently, the impactor continued to depress the PVC foam, which caused the lower skin to interact with the impactor, thereby forming an obstacle to deflection. This induced a further increase in the load (Point G) until the lower skin ruptured, causing a second decrease in force until the end of the test.

The small differences between the numerical and experimental curves are probably caused by production flaws or damage related to material variations that were not taken into account while creating the Finite Element Model (FEM). A cross-sectional image of the overall damage footprint is shown in Fig. 8b, which can aid researchers in their understanding of sandwich composite failure mechanisms during quasi-static impact events. Up until a perforation develops on the affected side of the composite laminates, the degree of damage grows gradually.

Figure 9 shows the comparison between the experimentally measured maximum load and the corresponding numerical results for the laminated and sandwich composites. This figure indicates that the numerical results coincide with those obtained experimentally, with the maximum load prediction having a reasonable percentage error of 1.43% and 6.45% for the laminate composite and the sandwich composite, respectively.

Fig. 9.

Comparison of maximum load in quasi-static perforation tests

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

4.2 Damage comparison

Following quasi-static perforation impact testing, the damage morphology resulting from the laminated and sandwich composites are visually compared in Figs 10 and 11. Hashin's damage criteria, a commonly used criterion for forecasting composite material failure, shows the locations on the figures where the fracture conditions have been met by red patches. The rainbow colors show the various intensities of damage, while the colors inside the red zone signify different degrees of damage. On the other hand, the blue areas show areas that are unharmed.

Fig. 10.

Comparison of damage obtained from numerical and experimental results for laminated composite plates after the quasi-static perforation tests

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

Fig. 11.

Comparison of damage obtained from numerical and experimental results for sandwich composite plates after the quasi-static perforation tests

Citation: International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering 16, 1; 10.1556/1848.2024.00790

The laminated and sandwich composites both experienced severe damage, according to observations, which included delamination, fiber fractures, matrix cracking, and persistent depression. It was discovered that delamination was the most noticeable kind of damage. It was centered near the impact site and had a mild elliptical tendency, giving it a circular appearance. In agreement with the conclusions of other writers, the damage orientation is aligned with the fiber direction (0 and 90); [28] who noticed similar results in quasi-static through testing of PP granules reinforced with glass fiber (0/90).

The impactor caused major damage to the sandwich composite, primarily delamination, by penetrating the PVC foam. The impact caused the bottom face sheet to shrink, resulting in fractures and a permanent depression. The foam underwent plastic deformation, causing considerable damage to the core. These results emphasize how crucial it is to take core material effects into account when creating sandwich composites with impact resistance. The results of this study also show that, despite some deviations from the experimental findings because of material uncertainties and manufacturing flaws, the FEM model utilized in the simulation was successful in estimating the degree and kind of damage to the composites. Drawing insights from the outcomes of the finite element simulation, the damage diagrams of all composite laminates obtained by numerical simulations correspond well to those obtained by experiments.

The comparison of the damage observed from the numerical and experimental results reveals that the damage pattern is distinct in the two composites due to the difference in stress concentration due to the laminated and sandwich structure of the studied composites. For both tested composites, numerical and experimental results show that the extent and severity of damage at the impact point are greater due to the higher indentation force, as shown in Figs 9 and 10.

5 Conclusion

This work has discussed a study on the quasi-static indentation impact behavior of laminated and sandwich composites. This study employed both experimental and numerical simulation techniques to explore the scope and characteristics of the damage induced by quasi-static perforation impacts. Therefore, the following conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of the results obtained in this study.

-Numerical modelling allowed for both qualitative and quantitative reproduction of the experimentally obtained force/displacement curves. The interpretation of these curves provided valuable insights into the experimentally identified damage sequences for the two composites tested during perforation impact tests.
-The force-displacement curves obtained through numerical simulation were in good agreement with those obtained from experiments. The maximum load was predicted with reasonably percentage error of 1.43% and 6.45% for the laminated and sandwich composite, respectively.
-The results indicate that both laminated and sandwich composites suffered significant damage, including permanent indentation, matrix cracking, fiber fractures, and delamination. Delamination was found to be the most prominent type of damage, and it was concentrated around the point of impact, presenting a circular shape with a slight elliptical tendency.

Data availability statement

The datasets produced and analyzed in the present study can be obtained from the corresponding author upon a reasonable request.

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International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering

Print ISSN:: 2062-0810

Online ISSN:: 2063-4269

Editorial Board

Mohammad Nazir AHMAD, Institute of Visual Informatics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia

Murat BAKIROV, Center for Materials and Lifetime Management Ltd., Moscow, Russia

Nicolae BALC, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Umberto BERARDI, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, Canada

Ildikó BODNÁR, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Sándor BODZÁS, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Fatih Mehmet BOTSALI, Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey

Samuel BRUNNER, Empa Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland

István BUDAI, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Constantin BUNGAU, University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania

Shanshan CAI, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

Michele De CARLI, University of Padua, Padua, Italy

Robert CERNY, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic

Erdem CUCE, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Rize, Turkey

György CSOMÓS, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Tamás CSOKNYAI, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

Anna FORMICA, IASI National Research Council, Rome, Italy

Alexandru GACSADI, University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania

Eugen Ioan GERGELY, University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania

Janez GRUM, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Géza HUSI, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Ghaleb A. HUSSEINI, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

Nikolay IVANOV, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russia

Antal JÁRAI, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary

Gudni JÓHANNESSON, The National Energy Authority of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland

László KAJTÁR, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

Ferenc KALMÁR, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Tünde KALMÁR, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Milos KALOUSEK, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republik

Jan KOCI, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic

Vaclav KOCI, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic

Imre KOCSIS, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Imre KOVÁCS, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Angela Daniela LA ROSA, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

Éva LOVRA, Univeqrsity of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Elena LUCCHI, Eurac Research, Institute for Renewable Energy, Bolzano, Italy

Tamás MANKOVITS, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Igor MEDVED, Slovak Technical University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia

Ligia MOGA, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Marco MOLINARI, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

Henrieta MORAVCIKOVA, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia

Phalguni MUKHOPHADYAYA, University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada

Balázs NAGY, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

Husam S. NAJM, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, USA

Jozsef NYERS, Subotica Tech College of Applied Sciences, Subotica, Serbia

Bjarne W. OLESEN, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark

Stefan ONIGA, North University of Baia Mare, Baia Mare, Romania

Joaquim Norberto PIRES, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

László POKORÁDI, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary

Roman RABENSEIFER, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republik

Mohammad H. A. SALAH, Hashemite University, Zarqua, Jordan

Dietrich SCHMIDT, Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy and Energy System Technology IWES, Kassel, Germany

Lorand SZABÓ, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Csaba SZÁSZ, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Ioan SZÁVA, Transylvania University of Brasov, Brasov, Romania

Péter SZEMES, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Edit SZŰCS, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Radu TARCA, University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania

Zsolt TIBA, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

László TÓTH, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

László TÖRÖK, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary

Anton TRNIK, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Nitra, Slovakia

Ibrahim UZMAY, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey

Andrea VALLATI, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy

Tibor VESSELÉNYI, University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania

Nalinaksh S. VYAS, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India

Deborah WHITE, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia

International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering
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International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering
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International Review of Applied Sciences and Engineering
Language	English
Size	A4
Year of Foundation	2010
Volumes per Year	1
Issues per Year	3
Founder	Debreceni Egyetem
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ISSN	2062-0810 (Print)
ISSN	2063-4269 (Online)