Abstract
The paper presents the results of research on the impact of national culture, Big Five personality traits, and emotional intelligence on job satisfaction in teleworkers. The impacts were also examined in conventionally employed, which enabled a comparison. The research was conducted in the countries of the Western Balkans and included 313 respondents. The job satisfaction of teleworkers is most positively influenced by humane orientation, performance orientation, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, self-regulation, and social skills. Self-awareness can act both positively and negatively, and neuroticism has a negative impact on job satisfaction. National culture has a greater impact on job satisfaction among conventionally employed rather than within teleworkers. Big Five personality traits work differently: extroversion has a greater impact on job satisfaction among conventionally employed, while agreeableness and conscientiousness have a greater impact on job satisfaction among teleworkers. Emotional intelligence has a greater impact on job satisfaction among conventionally employed rather than teleworkers. Teleworking employees are less influenced by the environment, and thus less influenced by national culture. Emotional intelligence helps conventionally employed work more, while teleworkers place higher value on the results of their work.
1 Introduction
Teleworking has previously been cited as a significant challenge for researchers in the field of organizational behavior. Felstead and Henseke (2017) believe that the increased use of telework may not represent a complete revolution, but it is certainly an important aspect of changing the nature of work. Teleworking is a form of labor that uses technology for information processing and delivering work outputs which allows employees to work from any location instead of working at the same location as their colleagues or customers (Garett – Danziger 2007). Telework can provide favorable outcomes for both employees and employers, primarily due to greater autonomy and freedom around the choice of working arrangements (Anderson – Kelliher 2020). Any social and economic changes can significantly affect the quality of life and job satisfaction, and influence the economy and society in general (Fedor 2021). According to Brunelle and Fortin (2021), teleworking is a better way of meeting workers' psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. On the other hand, working from home can negatively affect work-life balance due to blurred boundaries between work and everyday life, which then leads to increased fatigue and exhaustion of teleworkers (Palumbo et al. 2021). It seems that the effects of teleworking on organizational outcomes, like job satisfaction, employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover can be different, and the outcome largely depends on the characteristics and goals of the organization. On the individual level, it depends on the family environment, personal priorities, and affinities.
Telework implies certain flexibility in work, which can enhance employee job satisfaction. Some research suggests a positive link between telework and job satisfaction (Wheatley 2017; Reuschke 2019). However, Bellmann and Hübler (2020) did not find clear effects of telework on job satisfaction. Kaduk et al. (2019) distinguish between imposed and voluntary telework, first can lead to more stress, burnout, conflicts with the family, and less job satisfaction, while the other less so. At the same time, there are very few studies that go beyond a one-way examination of job satisfaction in teleworkers. According to Hofstede, national culture is a culture that exists within a country, and the importance of culture in economics and development is significant (Kristjánsdóttir et al. 2017). Big Five personality traits theory represents personality at the broadest level and using each bipolar factor gives researchers a broad insight into the differences in human nature classified into five domains (Gosling et al. 2003). According to Weisinger (1998), emotional intelligence is a form of managing one's own emotions and behaviors and helping others do the same. What is important here is that there is almost no research that deals with the effects of national culture, personality characteristics, or emotional intelligence on job satisfaction in teleworkers. However, some studies may be considered similar. A higher level of emotional exhaustion in telework (generated by constant access to work, as well as the lack of relationships and mentoring), adversely affects job satisfaction (Petcu et al. 2021). Similarly, research by Perry et al. (2018), reveals that teleworkers find it easier to tolerate higher workloads and extra effort at work if they have high emotional stability.
Based on the above, it can be assumed that various organizational and individual factors are important in the process of forming job satisfaction in teleworkers. So far the effects of national culture, personality traits, and emotional intelligence on job satisfaction have been presented, but without comparing the findings according to the work method. This paper aims to examine the impact of national culture, personality traits, and emotional intelligence on job satisfaction in teleworkers. It examines the state of job satisfaction and what influences that state. This way, the gap, which was created due to the lack of similar research, is filled. For example, the lack of research on this concept is well-known in teleworking “knowledge workers” (Boell et al. 2016). Filing this research gap has both scientific and theoretical significance and multiple applications in global management practice. The aim of the paper, as well as its contribution, is as follows: a) examine the factors that impact job satisfaction in teleworkers (not just the situation), b) compare these impacts with the same impacts on conventional employees, c) simultaneously examine and analyze a larger number of significant effects on job satisfaction, d) based on the results obtained, enable the formulation of practical recommendations for the management and improvement of job satisfaction for remote employees.
The research was conducted in the countries of the Western Balkans (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia). This sample extends the field of direct application of research results to several countries, including not only these five countries but also those with a similar national culture.
2 Theory and hypothesis
2.1 National culture and job satisfaction
National culture has an impact on organizational culture as well as on numerous business aspects. Hauff et al. (2015) examine the influence of job characteristics on job satisfaction, depending on the cultural environment; their research shows that certain job characteristics have different effects on job satisfaction. This is explained by the cultural differences of the 24 observed countries. Some studies reveal strong influences and connections between certain groups of national culture dimensions on job satisfaction. Based on their research in China, Zhai et al. (2013) hypothesize that in countries with high collectivism and high power distance, extraversion may be a major predictor of job satisfaction and subjective well-being. According to Ng et al. (2009), the link between job satisfaction and job performance is moderated by national culture, so this link is stronger in individualistic, low power distance, low uncertainty avoidance, and in masculine cultures.
Previous considerations show that national culture, or at least individual national culture dimensions, has an impact on job satisfaction, in the general case. It can be assumed that similar relationships exist among teleworkers, as well as that there are differences in the observed relationships between conventionally employed and teleworkers. Accordingly, in this section, three hypotheses are set:
H1a
There are statistically significant correlations between some dimensions of national culture and some dimensions of job satisfaction among teleworkers in the Western Balkans region.
H1b
There is a statistically significant predictive effect of some national culture dimensions on some of the job satisfaction dimensions among teleworkers in the Western Balkans region.
H1c
The working method (conventionally or teleworking) moderates the relationship between national culture and job satisfaction, in the Western Balkans region.
2.2 Big Five personality traits and job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is associated with personality (Judge et al. 2002). It follows from this that it is logical that the Big Five personality traits have significance in the study of job satisfaction (Ghetta et al. 2020). The influence of the Big Five personality traits on job satisfaction and organizational commitment has been confirmed in research (Tziner et al. 2008). However, a study in China found that out of the Big Five dimensions, only extraversion affects job satisfaction, while subjective well-being affects extraversion, conscientiousness, and neuroticism (Zhai et al. 2013). Research in Singapore (Templer 2012), and in China (Li – Xie 2020) argued that agreeableness positively affects job satisfaction. However, based on his research in the United Kingdom, Bui (2017) came to an interesting conclusion according to which extraversion does not affect job satisfaction. It should not be forgotten that, in addition to the Big Five broad personality traits, also narrow personality traits have their role in forming job satisfaction (Bergner et al. 2010) and impact performance (Sitser et al. 2013).
While there is no complete agreement on how individual Big Five dimensions affect job satisfaction, there is no doubt that there is an impact. It is assumed that similar relationships exist among teleworkers, as well as that there are differences in the given relations between conventionally employed and teleworkers. In this section, three hypotheses are posed:
H2a
There are statistically significant correlations between some of the Big Five dimensions and some of the job satisfaction dimensions among teleworkers in the Western Balkans region.
H2b
There is a statistically significant predictive effect of some Big Five dimensions on some of the job satisfaction dimensions among teleworkers in the Western Balkans region.
H2c
The working method (conventionally or teleworking) moderates the relationship between the Big Five dimensions and job satisfaction, in the Western Balkans region.
2.3 Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction
Emotional intelligence can play a significant role in the process of improving many individual and organizational outcomes. Singh et al. (2019) find that emotional intelligence is an effective tool for increasing job satisfaction, developing new skills, achieving work-life balance, improving relationships with colleagues, and pride in work. Employees with higher emotional intelligence are more satisfied with work, have greater organizational commitment, and have lower turnover intentions (Miao et al. 2017). A study by Thiruchelvi and Supriva (2009), conducted in the oil industry, found a positive impact of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction. Emotional intelligence is a predictor of some dimensions of job satisfaction: nature of work, communication, contingent rewards, and coworkers (Wolfe – Kim 2013). Research in Romania (Ignat – Clipa 2012) has shown that the high emotional intelligence of teachers has a positive relationship with attitudes towards work, a higher level of job satisfaction, and also higher life satisfaction. Contrary to the previous one, Carmeli (2003) came to the result that emotional intelligence encourages positive work attitudes and altruistic behavior, but has no effect on job satisfaction.
With very few exceptions, it is quite clear that, in general, emotional intelligence has significant effects on job satisfaction. It can be assumed that similar relationships occur among teleworkers, as well as that there are differences in the observed relations between conventionally employed and teleworkers. Thus, in this part, three hypotheses are set:
H3a
There are statistically significant correlations between some of the emotional intelligence dimensions and some of the job satisfaction dimensions among in teleworkers in the Western Balkans region.
H3b
There is a statistically significant predictive effect of some emotional intelligence dimensions on some of the job satisfaction dimensions among teleworkers in the Western Balkans region.
H3c
Working method (conventionally or teleworking) moderates the relationship between the emotional intelligence dimensions and job satisfaction in the Western Balkans region.
In order to better understand the research setting, a model was formed that more clearly represents the sets of hypotheses. This is shown in Fig. 1.
Research model (graphical representation of the hypotheses)
Source: authors.
Citation: Society and Economy 47, 1; 10.1556/204.2024.00008
3 Method
3.1 Participants and data collection
Participants were employed by IT companies located in five Western Balkans countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia. The selection aimed to capture a diverse range of perspectives within the IT industry across these regions, since many of their employees are teleworking. Respondents filled out questionnaires online; the final sample consisted of a total of 313 valid responses. All participants provided informed consent after receiving comprehensive information about the study's purpose, potential risks, and benefits. Emphasis was placed on respecting privacy and confidentiality, ensuring that participants' personal information remained protected throughout the study. The commitment to ethical standards included the avoidance of vulnerable populations, and the authors confirm that the research was conducted without any conflicts of interest. The sample is deemed representative of the IT workforce in the specified regions. Notably, 151 (48.24%) participants were working on site, while 162 (51.76%) were engaged in teleworking; 98 (31.31%) participants were male, while 215 (68.69%) were female; 161 (51.44%) participants were younger than 35 years, while 152 (48.56%) participants were older than 35 years. This balanced distribution facilitated a robust comparative analysis, allowing for meaningful insights into the experiences of both onsite and teleworking professionals. The authors believe this composition accurately reflects the diversity within the IT sector in the mentioned countries.
3.2 Survey instruments (measures)
The instrument of the GLOBE project was used to measure national culture (House et al. 2002). The “as is” condition was examined. Respondents used a seven-point Likert scale, and the completed questionnaires were processed according to GLOBE Syntax. The questionnaire had 39 questions, which made up nine dimensions (House et al. 2002; House et al. 1999; House et al. 2004).
The Big Five personality traits were measured using the Ten Item Personality Inventory instrument, developed by Gosling et al. (2003). Respondents used a seven-point Likert scale. Each personality type was determined by two questions, one of which was inverse.
The employees' emotional intelligence was measured through Weisinger's (Weisinger 1998) EI model. The respondents used a five-point Likert scale. The questionnaire consisted of 25 items and five dimensions.
Employees' job satisfaction was measured through the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) (Spector 1985). Respondents used a seven-point Likert scale. The questionnaire consisted of 36 items and nine dimensions.
4 Results
4.1 Descriptive statistics
The results of descriptive statistics, for national culture, Big Five, emotional intelligence, and job satisfaction dimensions, are given in Table 1. Cronbach's alpha values range from 0.712 to 0.928, which is an acceptable level of reliability of the measurement scale (Hair et al. 2019).
Descriptive statistics
| Dimensions | Abbr. | N | Min | Max | Mean | Std. Deviation | Cronbach's alpha |
| Uncertainty Avoidance | NC1 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.25 | 3.22 | 1.07 | 0.74 |
| Future Oriented | NC2 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 2.64 | 0.98 | 0.79 |
| Power Distance | NC3 | 313 | 1.60 | 7.00 | 6.16 | 0.85 | 0.83 |
| Collectivism 1 – Institutional | NC4 | 313 | 1.50 | 7.00 | 4.06 | 0.98 | 0.73 |
| Humane Orientation | NC5 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.20 | 3.71 | 0.98 | 0.72 |
| Performance Orientation | NC6 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.66 | 2.57 | 1.13 | 0.71 |
| Collectivism 2 – In-group | NC7 | 313 | 2.00 | 7.00 | 5.06 | 0.83 | 0.75 |
| Gender Egalitarianism | NC8 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.50 | 3.27 | 1.38 | 0.74 |
| Assertiveness | NC9 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.50 | 3.25 | 0.98 | 0.75 |
| Extroversion | E | 313 | 1.00 | 7.00 | 5.10 | 1.37 | 0.76 |
| Agreeableness | A | 313 | 1.50 | 7.00 | 5.47 | 1.12 | 0.79 |
| Conscientiousness | C | 313 | 1.50 | 7.00 | 5.63 | 1.23 | 0.84 |
| Neuroticism | N | 313 | 1.00 | 7.00 | 3.29 | 1.44 | 0.82 |
| Openness to experience | O | 313 | 1.00 | 7.00 | 5.75 | 1.14 | 0.79 |
| Self-awareness | EI1 | 313 | 2.00 | 5.00 | 4.15 | 0.58 | 0.71 |
| Self-regulation | EI2 | 313 | 1.40 | 5.00 | 3.82 | 0.66 | 0.78 |
| Motivation | EI3 | 313 | 1.80 | 5.00 | 3.95 | 0.65 | 0.85 |
| Empathy | EI4 | 313 | 2.20 | 5.00 | 4.12 | 0.59 | 0.73 |
| Social skill | EI5 | 313 | 1.80 | 5.00 | 4.10 | 0.61 | 0.73 |
| Pay | JS1 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 3.65 | 1.49 | 0.90 |
| Promotion | JS2 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 3.85 | 1.60 | 0.92 |
| Supervision | JS3 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 4.42 | 1.46 | 0.90 |
| Fringe Benefits | JS4 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 3.98 | 1.59 | 0.92 |
| Contingent Rewards | JS5 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 3.88 | 1.58 | 0.92 |
| Operating Procedures | JS6 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 3.77 | 1.12 | 0.74 |
| Coworkers | JS7 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 4.30 | 1.24 | 0.85 |
| Nature of Work | JS8 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 4.64 | 1.29 | 0.91 |
| Communication | JS9 | 313 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 4.41 | 1.19 | 0.83 |
| Valid N (list wise) | 313 |
Source: authors.
4.2 Impact of national culture on job satisfaction
Coefficients of correlation between the national culture and job satisfaction dimensions are given in Table 2 (for conventionally employed and teleworkers). Pearson correlation was used. At the same time, in Table 2, the results of the examination of the moderator effect of the work methods on the observed relations are presented. Hierarchical regression analysis was used. Pairs with a confirmed moderating effect are marked with bold font.
Coefficients of correlation between the national culture and job satisfaction dimensions (conventionally employed and teleworkers)
| Work method | JS1 | JS2 | JS3 | JS4 | JS5 | JS6 | JS7 | JS8 | JS9 | |
| Conventionally employed | NC1 | 0.245** | 0.231** | 0.152 | 0.196* | 0.215** | 0.293** | 0.240** | 0.085 | 0.219** |
| NC2 | 0.220** | 0.221** | 0.157 | 0.192* | 0.195* | 0.260** | 0.230** | 0.127 | 0.283** | |
| NC3 | −0.280** | −0.254** | −0.168* | −0.254** | −0.210** | −0.159 | −0.238** | −0.114 | −0.215** | |
| NC4 | 0.094 | 0.086 | 0.048 | 0.026 | 0.080 | 0.113 | −0.011 | −0.076 | −0.023 | |
| NC5 | 0.344** | 0.321** | 0.278** | 0.325** | 0.317** | 0.327** | 0.329** | 0.197* | 0.251** | |
| NC6 | 0.341** | 0.355** | 0.260** | 0.344** | 0.362** | 0.353** | 0.342** | 0.133 | 0.324** | |
| NC7 | 0.092 | 0.082 | 0.062 | 0.023 | 0.088 | 0.084 | 0.106 | 0.108 | 0.095 | |
| NC8 | 0.183* | 0.206* | 0.129 | 0.187* | 0.195* | 0.236** | 0.245** | 0.178* | 0.253** | |
| NC9 | 0.290** | 0.293** | 0.215** | 0.299** | 0.277** | 0.237** | 0.187* | 0.133 | 0.264** | |
| Teleworkers | NC1 | 0.024 | 0.019 | 0.044 | 0.044 | 0.029 | 0.118 | 0.021 | 0.064 | 0.077 |
| NC2 | 0.017 | 0.080 | −0.003 | −0.021 | 0.047 | 0.028 | 0.020 | 0.057 | 0.057 | |
| NC3 | −0.112 | −0.092 | 0.049 | −0.016 | −0.031 | −0.011 | 0.089 | −0.059 | −0.051 | |
| NC4 | −0.002 | −0.021 | 0.012 | 0.021 | 0.010 | −0.026 | 0.000 | 0.015 | −0.004 | |
| NC5 | 0.228** | 0.211** | 0.144 | 0.199* | 0.212** | 0.216** | 0.136 | 0.219** | 0.207** | |
| NC6 | 0.182* | 0.199* | 0.072 | 0.164* | 0.176* | 0.126 | 0.076 | 0.180* | 0.131 | |
| NC7 | 0.162* | 0.121 | 0.077 | 0.107 | 0.137 | 0.061 | 0.043 | 0.015 | 0.143 | |
| NC8 | 0.141 | 0.121 | 0.105 | 0.074 | 0.154 | 0.204** | 0.082 | 0.129 | 0.173* | |
| NC9 | 0.137 | 0.171* | 0.083 | 0.076 | 0.147 | 0.133 | 0.091 | 0.172* | 0.130 |
Note: *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01.
Source: authors.
Using multiple regression analysis, the predictive effect of the national culture dimensions (independent variables) on job satisfaction (dependent variables) was examined. These results are given in Table 3. Bold font indicates results in which there is a statistically significant predictive effect.
Regression analysis (independent variables: national culture dimensions; dependent variables: job satisfaction dimensions) (teleworkers)
| Dependent | |||||||||
| Independent β | JS1 | JS2 | JS3 | JS4 | JS5 | JS6 | JS7 | JS8 | JS9 |
| NC1 | −0.112 | −0.126 | −0.010 | −0.057 | −0.103 | 0.044 | −0.039 | −0.048 | −0.023 |
| NC2 | −0.057 | 0.012 | −0.035 | −0.080 | −0.014 | −0.028 | 0.002 | −0.022 | 0.008 |
| NC3 | −0.021 | 0.021 | 0.127 | 0.084 | 0.090 | 0.092 | 0.183 | 0.055 | 0.043 |
| NC4 | −0.043 | −0.065 | 0.002 | −0.015 | −0.023 | −0.042 | −0.008 | −0.007 | −0.037 |
| NC5 | 0.181 | 0.151 | 0.133 | 0.189 | 0.163 | 0.183 | 0.134 | 0.169 | 0.167 |
| NC6 | 0.155 | 0.180 | 0.042 | 0.216 | 0.159 | 0.005 | 0.078 | 0.112 | 0.036 |
| NC7 | 0.130 | 0.088 | 0.042 | 0.089 | 0.097 | −0.006 | 0.011 | −0.046 | 0.095 |
| NC8 | 0.031 | 0.001 | 0.070 | −0.025 | 0.063 | 0.155 | 0.048 | 0.039 | 0.103 |
| NC9 | −0.034 | 0.016 | 0.014 | −0.074 | −0.004 | 0.008 | 0.032 | 0.061 | −0.020 |
| R2 | 0.089 | 0.079 | 0.040 | 0.073 | 0.078 | 0.077 | 0.047 | 0.064 | 0.065 |
| F | 3.761 | 1.450 | 0.701 | 1.321 | 1.432 | 1.406 | 0.833 | 1.162 | 1.168 |
| Sig. | 0.105 | 0.172 | 0.707 | 0.231 | 0.179 | 0.190 | 0.587 | 0.323 | 0.319 |
Source: authors.
4.3 Impact of Big Five personality traits on job satisfaction
Coefficients of correlation between the Big Five personality traits and job satisfaction dimensions are given in Table 4 (for conventionally employed and teleworkers). Pearson correlation was used. Using Hierarchical regression analysis, the moderator effect of the working method on the observed relationships was examined, however, no pair was found in which a statistically significant moderator effect occurred.
Coefficients of correlation between the Big Five personality traits and job satisfaction dimensions (conventionally employed and teleworkers)
| Work method | JS1 | JS2 | JS3 | JS4 | JS5 | JS6 | JS7 | JS8 | JS9 | |
| Conventionally employed | E | 0.034 | 0.103 | 0.126 | 0.023 | 0.122 | 0.118 | 0.171* | 0.295** | 0.243** |
| A | −0.022 | 0.010 | −0.017 | −0.055 | −0.021 | −0.051 | 0.086 | 0.087 | 0.114 | |
| C | 0.027 | 0.031 | −0.011 | 0.033 | 0.061 | −0.047 | −0.066 | 0.095 | 0.080 | |
| N | −0.066 | −0.133 | −0.132 | −0.063 | −0.165* | −0.178* | −0.099 | −0.205* | −0.243** | |
| O | −0.020 | 0.066 | 0.037 | 0.005 | 0.052 | −0.013 | 0.132 | 0.193* | 0.144 | |
| Teleworkers | E | 0.082 | 0.038 | 0.026 | 0.017 | 0.064 | 0.031 | 0.059 | 0.205** | 0.117 |
| A | 0.026 | 0.088 | 0.040 | −0.026 | 0.073 | 0.094 | 0.212** | 0.247** | 0.171* | |
| C | 0.117 | 0.146 | 0.098 | 0.054 | 0.096 | 0.052 | 0.117 | 0.188* | 0.231** | |
| N | −0.113 | −0.160* | −0.081 | −0.108 | −0.126 | −0.067 | −0.115 | −0.225** | −0.171* | |
| O | 0.117 | 0.155* | 0.046 | 0.138 | 0.153 | 0.072 | 0.142 | 0.188* | 0.129 |
Note: *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01.
Source: authors.
Using multiple regression analysis, the predictive effect of the Big Five dimensions (independent variables) on job satisfaction (dependent variables) was examined. These results are given in Table 5. Bold font indicates results in which there is a statistically significant predictive effect.
Regression analysis (independent variables: Big Five dimensions; dependent variables: job satisfaction dimensions) (teleworkers)
| Independent β | Dependent | ||||||||
| JS1 | JS2 | JS3 | JS4 | JS5 | JS6 | JS7 | JS8 | JS9 | |
| E | 0.036 | −0.044 | −0.002 | −0.038 | −0.004 | −0.009 | −0.027 | 0.118 | 0.042 |
| A | −0.042 | 0.017 | 0.002 | −0.085 | 0.012 | 0.073 | 0.177 | 0.156 | 0.091 |
| C | 0.071 | 0.076 | 0.076 | 0.002 | 0.024 | 0.007 | 0.034 | 0.056 | 0.164 |
| N | −0.073 | −0.100 | −0.049 | −0.099 | −0.080 | −0.031 | −0.028 | −0.121 | −0.068 |
| O | 0.070 | 0.116 | 0.008 | 0.146 | 0.122 | 0.046 | 0.089 | 0.051 | 0.019 |
| R2 | 0.027 | 0.045 | 0.012 | 0.033 | 0.032 | 0.012 | 0.056 | 0.110 | 0.072 |
| F | 0.851 | 1.467 | 0.372 | 1.050 | 1.020 | 0.389 | 1.844 | 3.874 | 2.434 |
| Sig. | 0.516 | 0.204 | 0.867 | 0.390 | 0.408 | 0.856 | 0.107 | 0.002 | 0.037 |
Source: authors.
4.4 Impact of emotional intelligence personality traits on job satisfaction
Coefficients of correlation between the emotional intelligence and job satisfaction dimensions are given in Table 6 (for conventionally employed and teleworkers). Pearson correlation was used. At the same time, in Table 6, the results of the examination of the moderator effect of the working method on the observed relations are presented. Hierarchical regression analysis was used. There is only one pair when a statistically significant moderating effect is confirmed and it is marked with bold font.
Coefficients of correlation between the emotional intelligence and job satisfaction dimensions (conventionally employed and teleworkers)
| Work method | JS1 | JS2 | JS3 | JS4 | JS5 | JS6 | JS7 | JS8 | JS9 | |
| Conventionally employed | EI1 | 0.129 | 0.141 | 0.176* | 0.124 | 0.176* | 0.145 | 0.162* | 0.284** | 0.282** |
| EI2 | 0.216** | 0.266** | 0.245** | 0.205* | 0.292** | 0.261** | 0.138 | 0.270** | 0.302** | |
| EI3 | 0.131 | 0.175* | 0.223** | 0.128 | 0.201* | 0.200* | 0.164* | 0.272** | 0.314** | |
| EI4 | 0.170* | 0.216** | 0.188* | 0.147 | 0.206* | 0.199* | 0.206* | 0.248** | 0.323** | |
| EI5 | 0.119 | 0.174* | 0.163* | 0.096 | 0.145 | 0.102 | 0.154 | 0.144 | 0.306** | |
| Teleworkers | EI1 | 0.011 | 0.054 | 0.071 | 0.004 | 0.034 | 0.085 | 0.190* | 0.228** | 0.184* |
| EI2 | 0.065 | 0.161* | 0.168* | 0.108 | 0.139 | 0.079 | 0.239** | 0.242** | 0.229** | |
| EI3 | 0.062 | 0.170* | 0.074 | 0.069 | 0.087 | −0.058 | 0.206** | 0.259** | 0.175* | |
| EI4 | 0.037 | 0.024 | 0.034 | 0.007 | 0.050 | 0.030 | 0.210** | 0.227** | 0.160* | |
| EI5 | 0.038 | 0.070 | 0.102 | 0.017 | 0.078 | 0.103 | 0.292** | 0.227** | 0.224** |
Note: *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01.
Source: authors.
Using multiple regression analysis, the predictive effect of the national culture dimensions (independent variables) on job satisfaction (dependent variables) was examined. These results are given in Table 7. Bold font indicates results in which there is a statistically significant predictive effect.
Regression analysis (independent variables: emotional intelligence dimensions; dependent variables: job satisfaction dimensions) (teleworkers)
| Independent β | Dependent | ||||||||
| JS1 | JS2 | JS3 | JS4 | JS5 | JS6 | JS7 | JS8 | JS9 | |
| EI1 | −0.121 | −0.160 | −0.101 | −0.157 | −0.184 | 0.102 | −0.142 | −0.029 | −0.054 |
| EI2 | 0.086 | 0.150 | 0.258 | 0.187 | 0.220 | 0.169 | 0.187 | 0.100 | 0.196 |
| EI3 | 0.049 | 0.152 | −0.078 | 0.023 | 0.002 | −0.271 | 0.036 | 0.137 | −0.006 |
| EI4 | 0.040 | −0.099 | −0.143 | 0.003 | −0.009 | −0.186 | −0.082 | 0.099 | −0.085 |
| EI5 | 0.024 | 0.122 | 0.209 | 0.025 | 0.109 | 0.109 | 0.354 | 0.057 | 0.247 |
| R2 | 0.010 | 0.048 | 0.047 | 0.022 | 0.033 | 0.057 | 0.111 | 0.089 | 0.076 |
| F | 0.306 | 1.560 | 1.531 | 0.688 | 1.051 | 1.879 | 3.913 | 3.032 | 2.558 |
| Sig. | 0.909 | 0.175 | 0.183 | 0.634 | 0.390 | 0.101 | 0.002 | 0.012 | 0.030 |
Source: authors.
5 Discussion
5.1 Discussion of the relations between national culture and job satisfaction
A divided sample (Table 2) was first observed and the correlations are weaker among teleworkers and stronger among conventionally employed. This applies to almost all observed relations. In teleworkers, some correlations are no longer statistically significant. NC5 – Humane orientation, NC6 – Performance orientation, and to some extent NC9 – Assertiveness still have a positive impact. NC3 – Power distance has no statistically significant negative impact on job satisfaction dimensions, which is far more emphasized among the conventionally employed. Teleworkers are less exposed to direct environmental influences, because of their reduced direct contact with colleagues, which consequently has effects on the level of job satisfaction.
As an exception to the rule, it should be noted that the correlation between NC7 – Collectivism in-group and JS1 – Pay is statistically significant and positive among teleworkers, while the same correlation is weaker among conventionally employed and not statistically significant. To understand this, it should be recalled that a typical item in the NC7 construct reads: “In this society, children generally live at home with their parents until they get married.” Thus, the perception of high group collectivism may indicate the perception of low standards and low salaries, so teleworkers perceive their salary as higher compared to the environment (for JS1 – Pay, the average value for conventionally employed is 3.45530, while for teleworkers it is 3.83642, and there is a statistically significant difference). A similar thing happens with the relation NC9 – Assertiveness and JS8 – Nature of work, which is stronger and statistically significant among teleworkers: the perception of assertiveness in society, among teleworkers, leads to greater satisfaction with the nature of their work because they realize that they are in remote conditions less exposed to that “external” assertiveness.
Regression analysis for teleworkers (Table 3) shows results that are consistent with the results of the correlation analysis: the predictive effect is quite weak and concentrated on the dimensions of NC5 – Humane orientation and NC6 – Performance orientation. The positive perception of NC5 – Humane orientation indicates an optimistic and more relaxed view of the environment, so this is favorably reflected in job satisfaction and probably general satisfaction. Teleworkers can recognize and appreciate a company that has an emphasized NC6 – Performance orientation, because they must be focused on the result, without losing too much energy on interpersonal relationships at work.
In the regression analysis, an interesting exception from the results of the correlation analysis is a statistically significant and positive effect of NC3 – Power distance on JS7 – Coworkers. The explanation, as in the case of correlations between NC7 – Collectivism in-group and JS1 – Pay, and NC9 – Assertiveness, and JS8 – Nature of work, can be found in comparison with the environment. Namely, if teleworkers have a perception of high power distance in society, then they become more aware that they are not exposed to the direct influence of power distance at work, and then their satisfaction with their colleagues increases. This is supported by the positive effect of NC3 – Power distance on JS3 – Supervision, although this is not statistically significant. The values of the corrected determination indexes R2 are not statistically significant.
Hypotheses H1a and H1b have been partially confirmed because there are certain statistically significant influences and predictive effects, but in a smaller number of cases. Hypothesis H1c was confirmed because the working method (conventionally/telework) is a moderator in the relations between the national culture and job satisfaction. Statistically significant moderating effects exist in some cases, so the impacts are generally stronger among the conventionally employed.
5.2 Discussion of the relations between Big Five personality traits and job satisfaction
Although hierarchical regression analysis did not confirm any pair in which a moderator effect occurs, certain differences in the observed relationships still exist among conventionally employed and teleworkers (Table 4). E-Extroversion has a stronger effect on JS7 – Coworkers, JS8 – Nature of work, and JS9 – Communication with conventionally employed. Extroverts are more satisfied when they have the opportunity to communicate and see their associates, and it follows that such jobs suit them better. With teleworking employees, A – Agreeableness and C – Conscientiousness have a more favorable effect on JS7 – Coworkers, JS8 – Nature of work and JS9 – Communication, and to a lesser extent on other job satisfaction dimensions. Agreeable and conscientious employees are pleasant, diligent, reliable, and organized people: it suits them to have fewer in-person activities. It is also interesting that N – Neuroticism has a less negative effect on JS9 – Communication in teleworking employees. For neurotic people, communication should not take place in-person, as this shows their nervousness, restlessness, dissatisfaction, and instability to a lesser extent.
Regression analysis for teleworkers (Table 5) shows weak predictive effects and statistically significant ones exist in several cases. The strongest predictive effect is achieved by A – Agreeableness on the dimensions JS7 – Coworkers, JS8 – Nature of work, while C – Conscientiousness predicted JS9 – Communication. These results are consistent with the results of the correlation analysis. In addition, there are positive predictive effects of O – Openness on JS4 – Fringe benefits. When teleworking, open, creative, curious, intelligent, and unconventional people are more likely to achieve certain benefits at work. The values of the corrected determination indexes R2 are low, but still statistically significant for the dimensions JS8 – Nature of work and JS9 – Communication.
Hypotheses H2a and H2b have been partially confirmed because there are certain statistically significant influences and predictive effects but in a smaller number of cases. Hypothesis H2c has not been confirmed because the working method (conventionally/teleworking) is not a moderator in the relations between the Big Five personality traits and job satisfaction, and statistically significant moderating effects do not exist.
5.3 Discussion of the relations between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction
Hierarchical regression analysis revealed only one pair where there is a moderating effect of the method of employment (Table 6). However, according to the same board, it is noticeable that the correlations are far stronger among conventionally employed than among teleworkers. In telework, things are based on electronic communication, and very importantly, on results. There is no room to directly influence superiors and associates in a direct conversation with an emotional skill: the work done speaks for itself. An exception occurred with the impact of emotional intelligence on JS7 – Coworkers: these impacts are significantly stronger in the case of teleworkers. Here, emotional intelligence helps in recognizing people similar to oneself and realizing the need to work together, so this knowledge is focused on trust and satisfaction with colleagues. In addition, in teleworking employees, it should not be forgotten that emotional intelligence has a statistically significant impact (positive) on JS8 – Nature of work and JS9 – Communication. These influences are somewhat weaker than among conventionally employed, but it is certain that emotional intelligence helps the most in communication.
Regression analysis for teleworkers (Table 7) shows statistically significant predictive effects in many cases. EI2 – Self-regulation has more statistically significant and positive effects: stable and adaptable people are less nervous, better tolerate superiors, get rewards easier, and communicate more successfully. EI5 – Social skills significantly predicted JS7 – Coworkers and JS9 – Communication: people with better social skills are more likely to establish quality communication and good relationships with colleagues. In addition to these results, which are in agreement with the results of the correlation analysis, there are several new statistically significant effects, which occur due to the effect of many independent variables in regression analysis. For example, EI1 – Self-awareness exhibits a statistically significant and negative effect on JS2 – Promotion and JS5 Contingent rewards. Self-conscious teleworkers, who know themselves and their emotions, may be dissatisfied because they think they deserve more. EI3 – Motivation can reduce JS6 – Operating procedures: highly motivated teleworkers do not want to deal with procedures; they think that they slow them down and hinder creativity. The values of the corrected determination indexes R2 are low, but statistically significant for JS7 – Coworkers, JS8 – Nature of work, and JS9 – Communication.
Hypotheses H3a and H3b have been confirmed, because there are certain statistically significant influences and predictive effects in a significant number of cases. Hypothesis H3c has not been confirmed because the working method (conventionally/telework) is not a moderator in the relations between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction, that is, statistically significant moderators exist only in one case. However, there are certain tendencies according to which the observed relationships differ for conventionally employed and teleworkers. The correlations are generally stronger among conventionally employed than among teleworking employees.
5.4 Theoretical implications
Previous research on job satisfaction among teleworkers is, for the most part, one-way: they only determine the state of job satisfaction of teleworkers, with a possible comparison with conventionally employed. Thus, there is a lack of testing of different effects on job satisfaction in these types of workers. Because of that, the theoretical contribution of the paper is that the influences of three groups of factors on job satisfaction in teleworking employees have been established, which has not been done so far. The theoretical basis is deepened and new relations between constructs are established because the topic of teleworking is very important and has proven to be a trend that will continue to grow. Therefore, it is very important to explore these, but also some new relationships. Also, the analysis in this paper included a detailed analysis of all components of job satisfaction, not only as a construct of higher-order but also as individual dimensions, which raises the level of analysis to a higher level and provides detailed insight into each dimension, which is also a practical implication. All this provides a complex analysis of the variables and paves the way for future research that will be needed in contemporary management and telework practice. The obtained results, first of all, are valid for the countries included in the sample (five Western Balkans countries). However, the implications for international research stems from the fact that the same or similar research can certainly be conducted in other regions, states, and conditions. This research can be an example that future studies in this area can be done in the same or similar way: the approach, concept, and goals can be the same or similar, while the sample can change, and accordingly the individual results. Besides, this research can provide useful insight for academics who wish to continue to study teleworking.
5.5 Managerial implications
The practical significance of the paper is that managers, taking into account the presented results and discussions, can better understand the needs and understand the behavior of teleworking employees. Specifically, the results can be applied in the process of recruiting and selecting teleworkers, so that the employer can decide what kind of employees they want, in terms of personal traits and emotional intelligence. Also, the obtained data can be used in determining the appropriate duties, promotions, and rewards for teleworking workers, as well as delegating and managing productivity and absenteeism. Managers will be able to design a better support system in terms of communication and recommendations when taking teleworking employees' emotional intelligence into account. Teleworking companies can develop better strategies for growing and expanding into new markets with respect to the national culture of the area. All this is especially important today when telework has become an increasingly dominant method of work and a growing trend. When deciding on the teleworking practice in their companies, managers can advance new training programs and make sure the right employees benefit from them.
5.6 Research limitations
The limitation of the research is the sample, which comes from the countries of the Western Balkans region, and which is characterized by a certain national culture and living standard of citizens. It can be assumed that similar relations could occur in some other countries and regions, especially where there are similar cultural and economic conditions. The limitation of the sample refers to the occupation of the participants as well, since they were employed in the IT industry. Also, the method of analysis can go to higher-order constructions, i.e. research of relations at the level of job satisfaction from the angle of the total value, not dimensions, in order to obtain general conclusions about the proposed hypotheses. These limitations can shape future research, which could include different samples and another level of research to compensate for them.
6 Conclusions
Job satisfaction, as one of the most important human resource management and organizational outcomes, is one of the indicators of managerial practice and work environment in modern organizations. Having in mind that telework can have both positive and negative effects on different outcomes, the authors of this paper investigated job satisfaction among teleworking employees, compared to conventionally employed. Also, in order to investigate the predictors of job satisfaction in teleworkers, three independent constructs were used: emotional intelligence, personal characteristics, and national culture.
The job satisfaction in teleworking employees is mostly influenced by NC5 – Humane orientation, NC6 – Performance orientation, A – Agreeableness, C – Conscientiousness, O – Openness, N – Neuroticism (negative), EI1 – Self-awareness (can act both positively and negatively), EI2 – Self-regulation and EI5 – Social skills. It is also interesting that NC3 – Power distance has a positive effect on JS7 – Coworkers. It is difficult to say which of the three groups of observed variables (national culture, Big Five personality traits, and emotional intelligence) has a greater or lesser effect on job satisfaction in teleworking employees: cultural and personal constructs also have an impact on the formation of attitudes about work. Rather, it is possible to talk about which of the job satisfaction dimensions these influences are mostly focused on. Thus, within teleworkers, national culture acts equally on most job satisfaction dimensions (slightly more on JS1 – Pay and JS2 – Promotion), while Big Five and emotional intelligence, as personal characteristics, have the greatest effect on satisfaction JS7 – Coworkers, JS8 – Nature of work and JS9 – Communication. By comparing conventionally employed and teleworking employees, it can be concluded that national culture has a greater impact on job satisfaction among conventionally employed than among teleworkers. Teleworkers are less influenced by the environment, and thus less influenced by national culture. However, they follow the environment, compare themselves with it, and thus find certain advantages of their way of working; examples include significant and positive relations between NC7 – Collectivism in-group and JS1 – Pay, NC9 – Assertiveness, and JS8 – Nature of work, NC3 – Power distance and JS7 – Coworkers. Higher power distance can reduce effectiveness and job satisfaction among teleworkers since employees in cultures with higher power distance often look for support from supervisors and that can be hard in the teleworking environment (Adamovic 2022). Berrell (2021) also argues that teleworking efficiency can be influenced by national culture, and this might lead to differences in job satisfaction as well. Big Five personality traits work differently, depending on individual dimensions: E-Extroversion has a greater impact on job satisfaction among conventionally employed, while A-Agreeableness and C-Conscientiousness have a greater impact on job satisfaction among teleworking employees. Conscientiousness had a positive influence on job performance among teleworkers as well (Hoffmann et al. 2021). The same authors confirm there is no influence of extroversion on job performance among teleworkers. Job performance influences job satisfaction (Judge et al. 2001), so the influence of the Big Five on job performance among teleworkers is significant even though there is a lack of research on the influence of Big Five personality traits on teleworking employees. Emotional intelligence has a greater impact on job satisfaction among conventionally employed rather than among teleworkers, with the exception of effects on dimension JS7 – Coworkers. Teleworkers have fewer opportunities to use emotional intelligence in achieving business goals. However, with teleworkers, emotional intelligence increases the satisfaction of co-workers, precisely because of the lower possibility of some disagreements, as well as greater trust in the ability of colleagues. The positive influence of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction among teleworkers has been confirmed in Parent-Lamarche and Saade (2023), since it helps employees to better mitigate work-family conflict. The same authors confirm that teleworking also allows people to have lower interpersonal conflict in general, which leads to higher well-being and thus potentially better life and work satisfaction. These results have theoretical and practical significance and application, which was previously discussed.
Acknowledgement
This paper was supported by the Provincial Secretariat for Science and Technological Development, Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, Republic of Serbia; Project number: 142-451-2706/2021; Project name: Analysis of entrepreneurial activity aspects in the context of society 5.0 – The possibility of implementation in AP Vojvodina.
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