Fears of specific and real dangers are adaptations. Hypophobia, a lack of adaptive aversive emotions in dangerous situations, is often maladaptive. Anxiety disorders also appear maladaptive, and many ethological suggestions about adaptive function are unconvincing from a clinical perspective. Modern and effective treatment (Cognitive Behavioural Therapy) is based on changing disorder specific cognitive and metacognitive processes. Earlier thinking on the adaptive function of different types of anxiety and the downplaying of the specificity of different anxiety disorders is challenged. A combination of the cognitive sciences Evolutionary Psychology and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy might be fruitful. Evolutionary Psychology may provide Cognitive Behavioural Therapy with a better understanding of the function of the mental mechanisms involved, while Cognitive Behavioural Therapy may provide Evolutionary Psychology with a better understanding of the proximate mechanisms of specific mental disorders.
B. A. Alford A.T. Beck 1997 The Integrative Power of Cognitive Therapy Guilford Press New York.
American Psychiatric Association 1994 DSM IV Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th Edition American Psychiatric Association Washington, D. C..
P. W. Andrews 2006 Parent-offspring conflict and cost-benefit analysis in adolescent suicidal behavior. Effects of birth order and dissatisfaction with mother on attempt incidence and severity Human Nature 17 190 211.
S. Baron-Cohen 1997 Preface: Why evolutionary psychopathology? S. Baron-Cohen The Maladapted Mind: Classic Readings in Evolutionary Psychopathology Psychology Press Hove, UK ix xiii.
T. D. Borkovec J. Inz 1990 The nature of worry in generalized anxiety disorder: A predominance of thought activity Behaviour Research and Therapy 28 153 158.
T. D. Borkovec W. J. Ray J. Stöber 1998 Worry: A cognitive phenomenon intimately linked to affective, physiological, and interpersonal behavioural processes Cognitive Therapy and Research 22 561 576.
T. D. Borkovec E. Robinson T. Pruzinsky J. A. Depree 1983 Preliminary exploration of worry: Some characteristics and processes Behaviour Research and Therapy 21 9 16.
R. M. Brown E. Dahlen C. Mills J. Rick A. Biblarz 1999 Evaluation of an evolutionary model of self-preservation and self-destruction Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior 29 58 71.
D. M. Clark A. Wells 1995 A cognitive model of social phobia R. Heimberg M. Liebowitz D. A. Hope F. R. Schneier Social Phobia: Diagnosis, Assessment and Treatment Guilford Press New York.
D.M. Clark P.M. Salkovskis A. Hackmann A. Wells J. Ludgate M. Gelder 1999 Brief cognitive therapy for panic disorder: a randomized controlled trial Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 67 583 589.
D. A. Collier 2002 FISH, flexible joints and panic: Are anxiety disorders really expressions of instability in the human genome? British Journal of Psychiatry 181 457 459.
L. Cosmides 1989 The logic of social exchange: Has natural selection shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task Cognition 31 187 276.
L. Cosmides J. Tooby 1995 From function to structure: The role of evolutionary biology and computational theories in cognitive neuroscience M. S. Gazzaniga The Cognitive Neurosciences The MIT Press Cambridge, MA 1199 1210.
D. de Catanzaro 1995 Reproductive status, family interactions, and suicidal ideation: Surveys of the general public and high-risk groups Ethology and Sociobiology 16 385 394.
M. J. Dugas N. Koerner 2005 The cognitive-behavioral treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: Current status and future directions Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly 19 61 81.
P. L. Fisher 2006 The efficacy of psychological treatments for generalised anxiety disorder? G. C. L. Davey A. Wells Worry and Its Psychological Disorders: Theory, Assessment and Treatment John Wiley and Sons Chichester, UK 359 377.
P. L. Fisher R. C. Durham 1999 Recovery rates in generalized anxiety disorder following psychological therapy: An analysis of clinically significant change in the STAI-T across outcome studies since 1990 Psychological Medicine 29 1425 1434.
M. S. Gazzaniga 2000 The New Cognitive Neurosciences 2nd ed. The MIT Press Cambridge, MA.
P. Gilbert 2000 The relationship of shame, social anxiety and depression: The role of the evaluation of social rank Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 7 174 189.
P. Gilbert 2001 Evolution and social anxiety: The role of attraction, social competition, and social hierarchies The Psychiatric Clinics of North America 24 723 751.
P. Gilbert 2004 Evolutionary theory and cognitive therapy Springer Publishing Company NY.
P. Gilbert M. Boxall M. Cheung C. Irons 2005 The relation of paranoid ideation and social anxiety in a mixed clinical population Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 12 124 133.
P. Gilbert J. N. V. Miles 2000 Sensitivity to put down: Its relationship to perceptions of shame, social anxiety, depression, anger and self-other blame Personality and Individual Differences 29 757 774.
P. Gilbert J. S. Price S. Allan 1995 Social comparison, social attractiveness and evolution: How might they be related? New Ideas in Psychology 67 23 36.
P. Gilbert S. Procter 2006 Compassionate Mind Training for people with high shame and self-criticism: Overview and pilot study of a group therapy approach Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 13 353 379.
P. Gilbert P. Trower 2001 Evolutionary psychology and social anxiety W. R. Crozier L. E. Alden International Handbook of Social Anxiety Wiley & Sons Chichester, UK 259 279.
E. H. Hagen 2002 Depression as bargaining-the case post-partum Evolution and Human Behavior 23 323 336.
W. D. Hamilton 1964 The genetical evolution of social behaviour I Journal of Theoretical Biology 7 1 16.
W. D. Hamilton 1964 The genetical evolution of social behaviour II Journal of Theoretical Biology 7 17 52.
S. G. Hofmann D. A. Mocovitch N. Heinrichs 2004 Evolutionary mechanisms of fear and anxiety P. Gilbert Evolutionary Theory and Cognitive Therapy Springer Publishing Company NY 119 136.
K. S. Kendler 2004 Major depression and generalised anxiety disorder: Same genes, (partly) different environments — revisited Focus 2 416 425.
K. S. Kendler J. Myers C. A. Prescott 2002 The etiology of phobias. An evaluation of the stress-diathesis model Archives of General Psychiatry 59 242 248.
L. E. O. Kennair 2002 Evolutionary psychology: An emerging integrative perspective within the science and practice of psychology Human Nature Review 2 17 61.
L. E. O. Kennair 2003 Evolusjonspsykologisk suicidologi Suicidologi 8 3 22 26.
L. E. O. Kennair 2003 Evolutionary psychology and psychopathology Current Opinion in Psychiatry 16 691 699.
L. E. O. Kennair 2004 Evolusjonspsykologi — en innføring i menneskets natur Tapir Akademisk Forlag Trondheim.
M. R. Leary K. Buckley 2000 Social anxiety as an early warning system: A refinement and extension of the self-presentational theory of social anxiety S. G. Hofman P. M. Di-Bartolo Social Phobia and Social Anxiety: An Iintegration Allyn & Bacon New York.
I. Marks 1988 Blood-injury phobia: a review American Journal of Psychiatry 145 1207 1213.
I. M. Marks R. M. Nesse 1994 Fear and fitness: an evolutionary analysis of anxiety disorders Ethology and Sociobiology 15 247 261.
E. Mayr 1974 Behavior programs and evolutionary strategies American Scientist 62 650 659.
S. Mineka A. Öhman 2002 Phobias and preparedness: the selective, automatic, and encapsulated nature of fear Biological Psychiatry 52 927 937.
I. Mysterud 2003 Mennesket og moderne evolusjonsteori Gyldendahl Akademisk Oslo, Norway.
M. G. Newman T. D. Borkovec 1995 Cognitive-behavioral treatment of generalized anxiety disorder The Clinical Psychologist 48 4 5 7.
R. M. Nesse 1987 An evolutionary perspective on panic disorder and agoraphobia Ethology and Sociobiology 8 Supplement 73 83.
R. M. Nesse 1998 Emotional disorders in evolutionary perspective British Journal of Medical Psychology 71 397 415.
R. M. Nesse 2000 Is depression an adaptation? Archives of General Psychiatry 57 14 20.
R. M. Nesse 2001 The smoke detector principle: Natural selection and the regulation of defensive responses Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 935 75 85.
R. M. Nesse 2005 Evolutionary Psychology and mental health D. M. Buss Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology John Wiley & Sons Hoboken, NJ 903 937.
R. M. Nesse G. C. Williams 1995 Evolution and Healing: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine Weidenfeld & Nicholson London.
P. J. Norton E. C. Price 2007 A meta-analytic review of adult cognitive-behavioral treatment outcome across the anxiety disorders The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 195 521 531.
N. Ozaki D. Goldman W. H. Kaye K. Plotnicov B. D. Greenberg J. Lappalainen G. Rudnick D. L. Murphy 2003 Serotonin transporter missense mutation associated with a complex neuropsychiatric phenotype Molecular Psychiatry 8 933 936.
R. Poulton R. G. Menzies 2002 Non-associative fear acquisition: a review of the evidence from retrospective and longitudinal research Behaviour Research and Therapy 40 127 149.
S. Rachman 1977 The conditioning theory of fear-acquisition: a critical examination Behaviour Research and Therapy 15 375 387.
M. Robichaud M. J. Dugas 2006 A cognitive-behavioural treatment targeting intolerance of uncertainty G. C. L. Davey A. Wells Worry and Its Psychological Disorders: Theory, Assessment and Treatment John Wiley and Sons Chichester, UK 289 304.
L. Sloman P. Gilbert 2000 Subordination and Defeat: An Evolutionary Approach to Mood Disorders and Their Therapy Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Mahwah, NJ.
V. Stone L. Cosmides J. Tooby N. Kroll R. Knight 2002 Selective impairment of reasoning about social exchange in a patient with bilateral limbic system damage Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 11531 11535.
Tooby, J. and Cosmides, L. (1988): The evolution of war and its cognitive foundations. Institute for Evolutionary Studies Technical Report 88-1.
J. Tooby L. Cosmides 1990 On the universality of human nature and the uniqueness of the individual: The role of genetics and adaptation Journal of Personality 58 17 67.
D. Watson 2005 Rethinking the mood and anxiety disorders: a quantitative hierarchical model for DSM-V Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114 522 536.
P. J. Watson P. W. Andrews 2002 Towards a revised evolutionary adaptationist analysis of depression: the social navigation hypothesis Journal of Affective Disorders 72 1 14.
A. Wells 1997 Cognitive Therapy of Anxiety Disorders: A Practice Manual and Conceptual Guide Wiley & Sons Chichester, UK.
A. Wells 2000 Emotional Disorders and Metacognition: Innovative Cognitive Therapy Wiley & Sons Chichester, UK.
G. C. Williams 1985 A defence of reductionism in evolutionary biology Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology 2 1 27.